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Data, Information, Knowledge, and Wisdom

"Wisdom is not a product of schooling but of the
lifelong attempt to acquire it."

Albert Einstein

Computers are often called data processing machines or information
processing machines. People understand and accept the fact that computers
are machines designed for the input, storage, processing, and output of
data and information

However, some people also think of computers as knowledge processing
machines and even explore what it might mean for a computer to have
wisdom. For example, here is a quote from Dr. Yogesh Malhotra of the BRINT
Institute:

Knowledge Management caters to the critical issues of
organizational adaption, survival and competence in face of increasingly
discontinuous environmental change.... Essentially, it embodies
organizational processes that seek synergistic combination of data and
information processing capacity of information technologies, and the
creative and innovative capacity of human beings.

The following quotation is from the Atlantic Canada Conservation Data Centre,
a non-profit organization established in 1999.

Individual bits or "bytes" of "raw" biological data (e.g.
the number of individual plants of a given species at a given location)
do not by themselves inform the human mind. However, drawing various
data together within an appropriate context yields information that may
be useful (e.g. the distribution and abundance of the plant species at
various points in space and time). In turn, this information helps
foster the quality of knowing (e.g. whether the plant species is
increasing or decreasing in distribution and abundance over space and
time). Knowledge and experience blend to become wisdom--the power of
applying these attributes critically or practically to make
decisions.

Thus, we are led to think about Data, Information, Knowledge, and
Wisdom as we explore the capabilities and limitations of IT systems

Here are four definitions taken from Encarta® World English Dictionary
© 1999 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved. Developed for Microsoft
by Bloomsbury Publishing Plc.

Data

information, often in the form of facts or figures obtained from
experiments or surveys, used as a basis for making calculations or
drawing conclusions

information, for example, numbers, text, images, and sounds, in a
form that is suitable for storage in or processing by a computer

Information

definite knowledge acquired or supplied about something or somebody

the collected facts and data about a particular subject

a telephone service that supplies telephone numbers to the public on
request.

the communication of facts and knowledge

computer data that has been organized and presented in a systematic
fashion to clarify the underlying meaning

a formal accusation of a crime brought by a prosecutor, as opposed
to an indictment brought by a grand jury

Knowledge

general awareness or possession of information, facts, ideas,
truths, or principles

clear awareness or explicit information, for example, of a situation
or fact

all the information, facts, truths, and principles learned
throughout time

familiarity or understanding gained through experience or study

Wisdom

the knowledge and experience needed to make sensible decisions and
judgments, or the good sense shown by the decisions and judgments made

accumulated knowledge of life or in a particular sphere of activity
that has been gained through experience

an opinion that almost everyone seems to share or express

ancient teachings or sayings

Various people have thought carefully about varying definitions of
these four terms and produced their own analysis of the four terms. The
following is quoted from Jacques Steyn's
Website:

Information consists of data, but data is not necessarily
information. Also, wisdom is knowledge, which in turn is information,
which in turn is data, but, for example, knowledge is not necessarily
wisdom. So wisdom is a subset of knowledge, which is a subset of
information, which is a subset of data.

Arranging the Terms Along a scale

The terms Data, Information, Knowledge, and Wisdom are sometimes
presented in a form that suggests a scale.

However, in no sense do these four terms define some sort of linear
equal-interval scale. They do, however, help us to discuss the design of
an educational system as well as current and potential uses of computers.
For example, we all accept that computers can be used for the input,
storage, processing, and output of data. But, there is considerable
disagreement about whether a computer can have knowledge or be
knowledgeable--or have wisdom and be wise.

In the good old days, in the early history of using computers to do
business data processing, computers were data processing machines. There
were lots of workshops and courses on data processing. "Raw data" was
processed to produce reports that were then analyzed by management to make
management decisions. Hourly time sheets of workers were processed to
produce payroll checks and summary reports on employee costs.

Later came the idea of computers processing data to produce
information. Payroll data can be put together with other cost data, sales
data, and so on to produce information about which products are most
profitable. The huge collection of raw data can be processed into reports
that facilitate high level management decisions.

Computer Science Departments became Computer and Information Science
Departments. Terms such as Information Technology (IT) and Information and
Communication Technology (ICT) arose because they better described the
computer field.

In more recent years, businesses and others have worked to use
computers to process information so that it becomes or is closely similar
to knowledge. Knowledge in a person's head is used for posing and solving
problems, posing and answering questions, defining decision making
situations and making decisions, posing tasks to be accomplished and
accomplishing the tasks, and so on. Nowadays, computers make lots of
decisions without human intervention. That is, they receive data as input
and they process it in a manner that produces decisions and actions as
output. When a human does this, we talk about the level of knowledge,
skill , and intelligence that the person has.

The following summary and chart are quoted from Designing
Knowledge Ecosystems for Communities of Practice.

The graph below reflects the learning journey whereby we
progressively transform the raw, unfiltered facts and symbols into
information, knowledge, and eventually into intelligence and
wisdom.

The discussion in this section leads to questions such as:

Can a computer system have knowledge and be knowledgeable?

Can a computer system have wisdom and be wise?

How should these ideas and answers affect business and education?

From a Business Point of View

The following three definitions are quoted from Godbout (January
1999).

Data constitutes one of the primary forms of information. It
essentially consists of recordings of transactions or events which will
be used for exchange between humans or even with machines. As such, data
does not carry meaning unless one understands the context in which the
data was gathered. A word, a number or a symbol can be used do describe
a business result, inserted in a marriage contract or a graffiti on the
wall. It is the context which gives it meaning, and this meaning makes
it informative.

Information extends the concept of data in a broader context. As such
it includes data but it also includes all the information a person comes
in contact with as a member of a social organization in a given physical
environment. Information like data, is carried through symbols. These
symbols have complex structures and rules. Information therefore comes
in a variety of forms such as writings, statements, statistics, diagrams
or charts. Some information theorists insist on the concept of form as
the differentiating factor and the essence of information.

Where does knowledge fit in this scenario? Information becomes
individual knowledge when it is accepted and retained by an individual
as being a proper understanding of what is true (Lehrer, 1990) and a
valid interpretation of the reality. Conversely, organizational or
social knowledge exists when it is accepted by a consensus of a group of
people. Common knowledge does not require necessarily to be shared by
all members to exist, the fact that it is accepted amongst a group of
informed persons can be considered a sufficient condition. This is also
true of «public domain» knowledge. The fact that it is readily available
in writing or published material does not entail that everybody should
be knowledgeable about it to meet the condition of being "common
knowledge".

Godbout presents these definitions in an article discussing roles of
computers in the field called "knowledge management." Knowledge management
is of steadily growing importance in running a business or similar types
of organizations.

Educational Implications

It appears that one of the issues in defining the terms data,
information, knowledge, and wisdom is the role of understanding and
meaning making. One can memorize data, and parrot it back. One processes
data (organizes it into meaningful chunks?) to produce information.
Parroting such chunks sounds more like being educated--but this can be
done with little understanding or ability to make use of the information.
Knowledge is a step further on the scale. It involves understanding and
ability to make use of the data and information to answer questions, solve
problems, make decisions, and so on. Wisdom has to do with using one's
knowledge in a responsible (wise) manner.

In recent years, Robert
Sternberg has taken the position that wisdom can and should be taught
in schools, even at the elementary school level. A summary of his ideas
and definitions is available in the following reference. Quoting from
Sternberg. (November 13, 2002)

When schools teach for wisdom, they teach students that it
is important not just what you know, but how you use what you
know--whether you use it for good ends or bad. They are teaching for
what the Bush administration referred to recently, in a White House
conference, as the "fourth R": responsibility. Smart but foolish and
irresponsible people, including, apparently, some who run or have run
major businesses in our country, exhibit four characteristic fallacies
in their thinking.

…

I define wisdom as the application of intelligence and experience
toward the attainment of a common good. This attainment involves a
balance among (a) intrapersonal (one's own), (b) interpersonal (other
people's), and (c) extrapersonal (more than personal, such as
institutional) interests, over the short and long terms. Thus, wise
people look out not just for themselves, but for all toward whom they
have any responsibility.

The ISTE National Educational Technology Standards for students,
teachers, and school administrators all stress the responsible use of
computer systems. Thus, Sternberg's points of view about teaching
wisdom/responsibility are consistent with the ISTE viewpoint. Or, here is
a slightly different twist on the situation. We want students, teachers,
and school administrators to be responsible, wise use of computer systems.
As students learn to be responsible and wise, we want transfer of learning
to occur among many different application areas, including IT.

References

Bellinger, Gene; Casstro, Durval; and Mills, Anthony. , Date,
Information, Knowledge, and Wisdom. Accessed 11/15/02: http://www.outsights.com/systems/dikw/dikw.htm.

This article adds one more piece--understanding--to the
data, information, knowledge, and understand list. Quoting from the
Website:

According to Russell Ackoff, a systems theorist and
professor of organizational change, the content of the human mind can
be classified into five categories:

Data: symbols

Information: data that are processed to be useful; provides
answers to "who", "what", "where", and "when" questions

Knowledge: application of data and information; answers "how"
questions

Understanding: appreciation of "why"

Wisdom: evaluated understanding.

Godbout, Alain J. (January 1999). Filtering Knowledge: Changing
Information into Knowledge Assets. Journal of Systemic Knowledge
Management,. Accessed 11/15/02: http://www.it-consultancy.com/extern/systemic/knowfilter.html
systemic/knowfilter.html.

This article provides a careful analysis of knowledge
management by people and computer systems, from a business point of
view.

Moursund, David (1999). Data, Information, Knowledge, Wisdom. Learning
and Leading with Technology. v26. The following brief summary is quoted
from: Accessed 11/15/02: http://www.iste.org/L&L/26/8/summaries.html#Editorial
summaries.html#Editorial

Data, information, knowledge, and wisdom form a scale,
although a rather peculiar scale. The points on the scale are not
closely related even though they are often talked about at the same
time. In this month's editorial, David talks about the scale and how it
is being affected by information technologies.

Sternberg, Robert J. (November 13, 2002). Teaching for Wisdom in Our
Schools. Education Week. Accessed 11/15/02: http://www.edweek.com/ew/ewstory.cfm?slug=11sternberg.h22
slug=11sternberg.h22.
Quoting from the Website:

I define wisdom as the application of intelligence and
experience toward the attainment of a common good. This attainment
involves a balance among (a) intrapersonal (one's own), (b)
interpersonal (other people's), and (c) extrapersonal (more than
personal, such as institutional) interests, over the short and long
terms. Thus, wise people look out not just for themselves, but for all
toward whom they have any responsibility.

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