Tonality

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This article is about the musical system. For linguistic
feature, see Tone
(linguistics).

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Perfect authentic
cadence (IV64-V7-I progression) in C Play
(help·info). "This is the strongest
cadence type, almost always found at the main formal articulative points"
(Benjamin 2003, 284). "Tonal music is built around these tonic and dominant
arrival points [cadences], and they form one of the fundamental building blocks
of musical structure. ... A perfect authentic cadence is the strongest cadence
..." (Benjamin, Horvitz, and Nelson 2008, 63).

Tonality is a system of music in which specific hierarchical
pitch relationships are
based on a key "center", or tonic. The term
tonalité originated with Alexandre-Étienne
Choron (1810) and was borrowed by François-Joseph
Fétis in 1840 (Reti, 1958; Simms 1975, 119; Judd, 1998; Dahlhaus 1990).
Although Fétis used it as a general term for a system of musical organization
and spoke of types de tonalités rather than a single system, today the
term is most often used to refer to Major-Minor tonality (also
called diatonic tonality, common practice tonality, or
functional tonality), the system of musical organization of the common practice
period, and of Western-influenced popular music throughout much of the world
today.

Contents

1 Characteristics and
features

1.1 Form

1.2 Consonance and
dissonance

2 History and
theory

2.1 18th
century

2.2 19th
century

2.3 20th
century

3 Theoretical
underpinnings

4 See also

5 References

6 Sources

7 Further
reading

8 External
links

[edit]
Characteristics and
features

Main article: Diatonic scale

Carl Dahlhaus
(1990,[page needed])
lists the characteristics schemata of tonal harmony, "typified in the
compositional formulae of the 16th and early 17th centuries," as the "complete
cadence" (vollständige Kadenz): I-IV-V-I; I-IV-I-V-I; or I-ii-V-I; the circle of fifths
progression: I-IV-vii°-iii-vi-ii-V-I; and the "major-minor parallelism": minor:
v-i-VII-III equals major: iii-vi-V-I; or minor: III-VII-i-v equals major:
I-V-vi-iii.

David Cope (1997,[page needed])
considers key, consonance and
dissonance (or
relaxation and tension, respectively), and hierarchical relationships
to be the three most basic concepts in tonality. In describing these tenets of
tonal music, several known terms are used to refer to various elements of the
tonal system.

Other scales or modes are often introduced for variety within the context of
a major-minor tonal system without disturbing the diatonic nature
of the work. The major scale predominates, and the melodic minor contains nine
pitches (seven with two alterable). The seven basic notes of a scale are notated
in the key signature,
and whether the piece is in the major or minor key is either stated in the title
or implied in the piece (there is a major and minor key for each key
signature).

Other important scales include the blues scale, the whole tone scale, the
pentatonic scale,
and the chromatic
scale. As these are not the major or minor diatonic scales, music written
exclusively with them is not tonal by the definition above.

Chords are built primarily
from notes of a diatonic scale, or secondarily from chromatic
notes treated as variations or embellishments of the basic scale. The identity
of the scale is important, as the size of the steps between notes are used to
determine the system of chord relationships.

[edit]
Form

Main article: Musical form

The traditional form of tonal music begins
and ends on the tonic of the piece, and many tonal works move to a closely
related key, such as the dominant of the main
tonality (for example sonata
form). Establishing a tonality is traditionally accomplished through a cadence, which is two
chords in succession which give a feeling of completion or rest, with the most
common being V7-I cadence. Other cadences are considered to be less
powerful.

[edit]
Consonance and
dissonance

Main article: Consonance and
dissonance

In the context of tonal organization, a chord or a note is said to be
consonant when it implies stability, and dissonant when it implies
instability. This is not the same as the ordinary use of the words consonant and
dissonant. A dissonant chord is in tension against the tonic, and implies that
the music is distant from that tonic chord. Resolution is the process by
which the harmonic progression moves from dissonant chords to consonant chords
and follows counterpoint
or voice leading. Voice leading is a description of the horizontal
movement of the music, as opposed to chords which are considered the
vertical.

Traditional tonal music is described in terms of a scale of notes, upon which
are built chords. Chords in order form progressions, which establish or deny a
particular chord as being the tonic chord. The cadence is held to be the
sequence of chords which establishes one chord as being the tonic chord; more
powerful cadences create a greater sense of closure and a stronger sense of key.
Chords function by leading the music towards or away from a particular tonic
chord. When the sense of which chord is the tonic is changed, the music is said
to have "changed key" or "modulated". Roman numerals and numbers are used to
describe the relationship of a particular chord to the tonic chord.

The techniques of accomplishing this process, are the subject of tonal music theory and
compositional practice.

[edit]
History and theory

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[edit]
18th century

Theories of tonal music are generally said[weasel words]
to have begun with Jean-Philippe
Rameau's Treatise on Harmony (1722), who was the first theorist to
justify harmonic practice through a coherent system based on acoustical
principles (Girdlestone 1969, 520). He claimed that his work represents "the
practice of the last 40 years" (Rameau 1722,[page needed].
Rameau's work was introduced to Germany by Friedrich Wilhelm
Marpurg in 1757, and used Rameau's system to explain the music of Johann
Sebastian Bach (Marpurg 1753–54).[vague]
The vocabulary of describing notes in relationship to the tonic note, and the
use of harmonic progressions and cadences, became part of Bach's practice.
Essential to this version of tonal theory are the chorale harmonizations of
Bach, and the method by which a church melody is given a four part harmony by
first assigning cadences, then creating a natural, or most direct, thoroughbass, and finally
filling in the middle voices.[citation
needed]

[edit]
19th century

Fétis (1844[citation
needed]) defined tonality, specifically tonalité moderne as
the, "set of relationships, simultaneous or successive, among the tones of the
scale," allowing for other types de tonalités among different
cultures.[cite
this quote] He considered tonalité moderne as "trans-tonic
order" (having one established key, and allowing for modulation to other keys)
and tonalité ancienne "uni-tonic order" (establishing one key and
remaining in that key for the duration of the piece). He described his earliest
example of tonalité moderne thus: "In the passage quoted here from
Monteverdi's madrigal (Cruda amarilli, mm. 9–19 and 24–30), one sees a
tonality determined by the accord parfait [root position major chord] on
the tonic, by the sixth chord assigned to the chords on the third and seventh
degrees of the scale, by the optional choice of the accord parfait or the
sixth chord on the sixth degree, and finally, by the accord parfait and,
above all, by the unprepared seventh chord (with major third) on the dominant"
(Fétis 1844, 171).

Fétis believed that tonality, tonalité moderne, was entirely cultural,
saying, "For the elements of music, nature provides nothing but a multitude of
tones differing in pitch, duration, and intensity by the greater or least
degree... The conception of the relationships that exist among them is awakened
in the intellect, and, by the action of sensitivity on the one hand, and will on
the other, the mind coordinates the tones into different series, each of which
corresponds to a particular class of emotions, sentiments, and ideas. Hence
these series become various types of tonalities" (Fétis 1844, 11–12). "But one
will say, 'What is the principle behind these scales, and what, if not acoustic
phenomena and the laws of mathematics, has set the order of their tones?' I
respond that this principle is purely metaphysical [anthropological]. We
conceive this order and the melodic and harmonic phenomena that spring from it
out of our conformation and education" (Fétis 1844, 249). In contrast, Hugo
Riemann believed tonality, "affinities between tones" or
Tonverwandtschaften, was entirely natural and, following Moritz Hauptmann
(1853), that the major third and perfect fifth were the only "directly
intelligible" intervals, and that I, IV, and V, the tonic, subdominant, and
dominant were related by the perfect fifths between their root notes (Dahlhaus
1990, 101-2).

By the 1840s, the practice of harmony had expanded to include more chromatic
notes and a wider chord vocabulary, particularly the more frequent use of the
diminished seventh chord—a four-note chord of all minor thirds. It is in this
era that the word tonality became more common. At the same time, the
elaboration of both the fugue
and the sonata form, in
terms of key relationships, became more rigorous, and the study of harmonic
progressions, voice leading, and ambiguity of key, more precise.

Theorists such as Hugo
Riemann, and later Edward Lowinsky and
others, pushed back the date at which modern tonality began, and the cadence began to be seen
as the definitive way that a tonality is established in a work of music (Judd,
1998).

[edit]
20th century

This section needs additional citations
for verification.
Please
help improve this article by adding reliable
references. Unsourced material may be challenged
and removed.
(May 2010)

In response, Bernhard Meier instead used a tonality and
modality, or modern and ancient, dichotomy, with Renaissance music
being modal. The term modality has been criticized by Harold Powers, among
others. However, it is used to describe music whose harmonic function centers on
notes rather than on chords, including some of the music of Bartók, Stravinsky, Vaughan Williams,
Charles Ives, and
composers of minimalist music. This and other modal music is broadly tonal.

In the early 20th century, the vocabulary of tonal theory was decisively
influenced by two theorists: composer Arnold Schoenberg,
whose Harmonielehre (Theory of Harmony) describes in detail chords, chord
progressions, vagrant chords, creation of tonal areas, and voice leading in
terms of harmony. To Schoenberg, every note has "structural function" to assert
or deny a tonality, based on its tendency to establish or undermine a single
tonic triad as central. At the same time, Heinrich Schenker was
evolving a theory based on the expansion of horizontal relationships. To
Schenker, the background of every successful tonal piece is based on a simple
cadence, which is then elaborated and elongated in the middle and foreground.
Though adherents of the two theorists argued back and forth, in the mid-century
a synthesis of their ideas was widely taught as tonal theory, most
particularly, Schenker's use of graphical analysis, and Schoenberg's emphasis on
tonal distance.

The practice of jazz developed its own theory of tonality[citation
needed], stating[who?]
that while the cadence is not central to establishing a tonality, the presence
of the I and V chords and either the IV or ii chord in progression is. This
theory emphasized the play of modal elements against tonal elements in an effort
to allow improvisation and inflection of standard melodies.

Tonality may be considered generally, with no restrictions on the date or
place the music was produced, and little restriction on the materials and
methods used. This definition includes pre-17th century western music, as well
as much non-western music. By the middle of the 20th century, it had become
"evident that triadic structure does not necessarily generate a tone center,
that non-triadic harmonic formations may be made to function as referential
elements, and that the assumption of a twelve-tone complex does not preclude the
existence of tone centers" (Perle 1991, 8). Centric is sometimes
used to describe music which is not traditionally tonal, but which nevertheless
has a relatively strong tonal center. Often the term common practice
tonality is used specifically to refer to tonal music that utilizes the
diatonic system of relationship between tonic and dominant, whereas tonal
or tonality refers more broadly to describe any music or musical practice
that relies on or exhibits tonal centers, modalities, or both, often with
triadic organization and relatively consonant harmonies.

In the early 20th century, the tonality which had prevailed since the 17th
century was seen to have reached a crisis or break down point. Because of the
"increased use of the ambiguous chords, the less probable harmonic progressions,
and the more unusual melodic and rhythmic inflections" (Meyer 1967, 241), the
syntax of functional harmony was loosened to the point where "At best, the felt
probabilities of the style system had become obscure; at worst, they were
approaching a uniformity which provided few guides for either composition or
listening" (Meyer 1967, 241).

Alfred Einstein wrote that in ancient China, "the development from the
non-semitonal pentatonic to the seven-note scale is certainly traceable, even
though the old pentatonic always remained the foundation of its music" (Einstein
1954, 7). He notes a similar development in ancient Japan and Java. Much folk
and art music focuses on a pentatonic, or five-note scale, including Beijing
Opera, the folk music of Hungary, and the musical traditions of Japan.

[edit]
Theoretical
underpinnings

Tonality allows for a great range of musical materials, structures, meanings,
and understandings. It does this through establishing a tonic, or central chord,
based on the lowest pitch, or degree, of a scale, and using a somewhat flexible
network of relations between any pitch or chord and the tonic, similar to perspective in
painting. Tonality has a hierarchical structure: one triad, the tonic triad, is
the center to which other chords are supposed to lead.

Circle of
fifths

As within a musical phrase, interest and tension may be created through the
move from consonance to dissonance and back. A larger piece will also create
interest by moving away from and back to the tonic, and tension by destabilizing
and re-establishing the key. Temporary secondary tonal centers may be
established by cadences, or simply
passed through in a process called modulation, while
simultaneous tonal centers may be established through polytonality. Additionally,
the structure of these features and processes may be linear, cyclical, or both.
This allows for a huge variety of relations to be expressed through consonance and
dissonance, distance or proximity to the tonic, the establishment of
temporary or secondary tonal centers, and ambiguity as to tonal center.
Music notation was created to accommodate tonality and facilitate
interpretation.

The majority of tonal music assumes that notes spaced over several octaves are
perceived the same way as if they were played in one octave, or octave equivalency.
Tonal music also assumes that scales have harmonic implication or diatonic
functionality. This means a note which has different places in a chord will be
heard differently, thus there is not enharmonic
equivalency. In tonal music, chords which are moved to different keys, or
played with different root notes, are not perceived as being the same; transpositional
equivalency and especially inversional
equivalency are not considered applicable.

A successful tonal piece of music, or a successful performance of one, will
give the listener a feeling that a particular chord — the tonic chord — is the
most stable and final. It will then use musical materials to tell the musician
and the listener how far the music is from that tonal center, most commonly,
though not always, to heighten the sense of movement and drama as to how the
music will resolve the tonic chord. The means for doing this are described by
the rules of harmony (or throughbass) and counterpoint. Counterpoint
is the study of linear resolutions of music, while harmony encompasses the
sequences of chords which form a chord progression.

Though modulation may occur instantaneously without indication or
preparation, the least ambiguous way to establish a new tonal center is through
a cadence, a
succession of two or more chords which ends a section, gives a feeling of
closure or finality, or both. Traditionally, cadences act both harmonically, to
establish tonal centers, and formally, to articulate the end of sections; just
as the tonic triad is harmonically central, a dominant-tonic cadence will be
structurally central. The more powerful the cadence, the larger the section of
music it can close. The strongest cadence is the perfect authentic cadence,
which moves from the dominant to the tonic, most strongly establishes tonal
center, and ends the most important sections of tonal pieces, including the
final section. This is the basis of the dominant-tonic or
tonic-dominant relationship. Common practice placed a great deal of
emphasis on the correct use of cadences to structure music, and cadences were
placed precisely to define the sections of a work. However, such strict use of
cadences gradually gave way to more complex procedures where whole families of
chords were used to imply particular distance from the tonal center. Composers,
beginning in the late 18th century, began using chords such as the Neapolitan,
French or Italian Sixth. These temporarily suspended a sense of key, and by
freely changing between the major and minor voicing for the tonic chord, they
made the listener unsure of whether the music was major or minor. There was also
a gradual increase in the use of notes which were not part of the basic 7 notes,
called chromaticism,
culminating in post-Wagnerian music such as that
by Mahler and Strauss, and trends such
as impressionism and dodecaphony.

One area of disagreement going back to the origin of the term tonality is
whether tonality is natural or inherent in acoustical phenomena, whether
it is inherent in the human nervous system or a psychological construct, whether
it is inborn or learned, and to what degree it is all these things (Meyer 1967,
236). A viewpoint held by many theorists since the third quarter of the 19th
century, following the publication in 1862 of the first edition of Helmholtz's
On the Sensation of Tone (Helmholtz 1877), holds that diatonic scales and
tonality arise from natural overtones (Riemann 1872, 1875, 1882, 1893, 1905,
1914–15; Schenker 1906–35; Hindemith 1937–70).

Rudolph Réti
differentiates between harmonic tonality of the traditional kind found in homophony, and melodic
tonality, as in monophony.
In the harmonic kind, tonality is produced through the V-I chord progression. He
argues that in the progression I-x-V-I (and all progressions), V-I is the only
step "which as such produces the effect of tonality," and that all other
chord successions, diatonic or not, being more or less similar to the
tonic-dominant, are "the composer's free invention." He describes melodic
tonality (the term coined independently and 10 years earlier by Estonian
composer Jaan
Soonvald (Rais 1992, 46)) as being "entirely different from the classical
type," wherein, "the whole line is to be understood as a musical unit mainly
through its relationship to this basic note [the tonic]," this note not always
being the tonic as interpreted according to harmonic tonality. His examples are
ancient Jewish and Gregorian chant and
other Eastern music, and he points out how these melodies often may be
interrupted at any point and returned to the tonic, yet harmonically tonal
melodies, such as that from Mozart's The Magic Flute
below, are actually "strict harmonic-rhythmic
pattern[s]," and include many points "from which it is impossible, that is,
illogical, unless we want to destroy the innermost sense of the whole line" to
return to the tonic (Reti 1958).[page needed]

Play
normally (help·info) and compare with impossible
return (help·info) after B♮

x = return to tonic near inevitable

circled x = possible but not inevitable

circle = impossible

(Reti 1958,[page needed])

Consequently, he argues, melodically tonal melodies resist harmonization and
only reemerge in western music after, "harmonic tonality was abandoned," as in
the music of Claude
Debussy: "melodic tonality plus modulation is
[Debussy's] modern tonality" (Reti 1958, 23).

[edit]
See also

Music
portal

Atonality

History of music

Schenkerian
analysis

Peter
Westergaard's tonal theory

[edit]
References

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Jim Samson (1977) suggests the following discussions of tonality as
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Beswick, Delbert M. 1950. "The Problem of Tonality in Seventeenth
Century Music". Ph.D. thesis. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina.
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Shirlaw, Matthew (1917). The Theory of Harmony: An Inquiry into the
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(Reprinted New York: Da Capo Press, 1969. ISBN
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Jahrbuch der Musikbibliothek Peters 1914–15: 1–26.

Samson, Jim. 1977. Music in Transition: A Study of Tonal Expansion and
Atonality, 1900-1920. New York: W.W. Norton & Company. ISBN
0-393-02193-9.

Schellenberg, E. Glenn, and Sandra E. Trehub. 1996. "Natural Musical
Intervals: Evidence from Infant Listeners" Psychological Science Vol.
7, no. 5 (September): 272-77.

Schenker, Heinrich. 1906–35. Neue musikalische Theorien und
Phantasien. 3 vols. in 4. Vienna and Leipzig: Universal Edition.

Schenker, Heinrich. 1979. Free composition, translated and edited
by Ernst Oster. New York: Longman, 1979. Translation of Neue musikalische
Theorien und Phantasien, 3. Bd., Der freie Satz. ISBN
0-582-28073-7

Schenker, Heinrich. 1987. Counterpoint, translated by John Rothgeb
and Jürgen Thym; edited by John Rothgeb. 2 vols. New York: Schirmer Books;
London: Collier Macmillan. Translation of Neue musikalische Theorien und
Phantasien, 2. Bd., Kontrapunkt. ISBN
0-02-873220-0

Schenker, Heinrich;
ed. and annot. Oswald Jonas (1954). Harmony. trans. Elisabeth
Mann-Borgese. Chicago: University of
Chicago Press. OCLC 280916.  Translation of Neue musikalische
Theorien und Phantasien, 1. Bd., Harmonielehre. (Reprinted
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0-262-69044-6)

Schoenberg, Arnold. 1978. Theory of Harmony, translated by Roy E.
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Simms, Bryan. 1975. "Choron, Fétis, and the Theory of Tonality."
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Thomson, William. 1999. Tonality in Music: A General Theory. San
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[edit]
Further reading

Khramov M. 2008. "Project Commator and Sonantometry."
Proceedings of the International Symposium FRSM-2008. Kolkata,
pp. 133–140.[Full
citation needed]

[edit]
External links

Wikiquote has a
collection of quotations related to: Tonality

Music Fundamentals: Tonal Music PDF

Tonal
Harmony Reference Materials for the Undergraduate Theory Student

Tonality, Modality, and Atonality by Larry Solomon

Basic guide to tonal theory

The Tonal Centre "explains and demonstrates some of the key
concepts of tonality"

Algebra of Tonal Functions.

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