Jazz

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For other uses, see Jazz
(disambiguation).

Jazz

Stylistic
origins:

Blues • Folk •
March •
Ragtime

Cultural
origins:

Early 1910s New Orleans

Typical instruments:

Saxophone ·
Clarinet ·
Flute ·
Vibraphone ·
Trumpet ·
Piano ·
Guitar ·
Banjo ·
Tuba ·
Double
bass · Bass
Guitar · Vocals
· Trombone ·
Drum kit

Mainstream
popularity:

1920s–1960s

Derivatives:

Jump blues • Rhythm and blues
• Rock and roll
• Ska  • Reggae  • Funk

Subgenres

Afro-jazz •
Asian American
jazz • Avant-garde
jazz • Bebop • Big band •
Chamber
jazz • Continental
jazz • Cool jazz •
Free jazz •
Gypsy
jazz • Hard Bop •
Latin
jazz • Mainstream
jazz • M-Base • Neo-bop •
Orchestral
jazz • Post-bop •
Soul jazz •
Stride •
Swing •
Third
stream • Traditional
jazz • Traditional
pop • Vocal
jazz

Fusion
genres

Acid
jazz • Afrobeat •
Bluegrass •
Bossa
nova • Calypso
jazz • Crossover
jazz • Dansband •
Free funk •
Humppa • Jam band •
Jazzcore •
Jazz funk •
Jazz
fusion • Jazz rap •
Kwela • Livetronica •
Mambo •
Manila
Sound • Nu jazz •
Nu soul •
Punk jazz •
Shibuya-kei •
Ska jazz •
Smooth
jazz • Swing
revival • World
fusion • Yé-yé

Regional scenes

Australia •
Brazil •
Cuba •
France •
Germany •
India •
Italy •
Japan •
Malawi •
Netherlands •
Poland •
South
Africa • Spain •
United
Kingdom

Local scenes

Cape
Town • Kansas
City • New
Orleans • West
Coast

Jazz musicians

Bassists •
Clarinetists •
Drummers •
Guitarists •
Organists •
Pianists •
Saxophonists •
Trombonists •
Trumpeters

Other topics

Jazz
standard • Jazz
royalty • Jazz
(word) • Jazz
clubs • Jazz
drumming

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Jazz is a musical tradition and style of music that originated at the
beginning of the 20th century in African American
communities in the Southern United
States from a confluence of African and European music traditions. From its
early development until the present, jazz has incorporated music from 19th and
20th century American popular
music.[1]
Its West African pedigree is evident in its use of blue notes, improvisation, polyrhythms,
syncopation, and the swung note.[2]

The word "jazz" (in early years
also spelled "jass") began as a West
Coast slang term and was first used to refer to music in Chicago in about
1915.

From its beginnings in the early 20th century jazz has spawned a variety of
subgenres: New Orleans Dixieland dating from the
early 1910s, big band-style
swing
from the 1930s and 1940s, bebop
from the mid-1940s, a variety of Latin jazz fusions
such as Afro-Cuban and Brazilian jazz, free jazz from the 1950s and
1960s, jazz fusion from
the 1970s, acid jazz from
the 1980s (which added funk and
hip-hop influences), and Nujazz in the 1990s. As the music
has spread around the world it has drawn on local, national, and regional
musical cultures, its aesthetics being adapted to its varied environments and
giving rise to many distinctive styles.

Contents

1 Definition

1.1 Debates

2 Etymology of
"Jazz"

3 Origins

4 1890s–1910s

4.1 Ragtime

4.2 New Orleans
music

5 1920s and 1930s

5.1 The Jazz
Age

5.2 Swing

5.3 Beginnings of European
jazz

6 1940s and 1950s

6.1 Dixieland
revival

6.2 Bebop

6.3 Cool
jazz

6.4 Hard
bop

6.5 Modal
jazz

6.6 Free
jazz

7 1960s and 1970s

7.1 Latin
jazz

7.2 Post
bop

7.3 Soul
jazz

7.4 Jazz
fusion

7.5 Jazz
funk

7.6 Other
trends

8 1980s–2010s

8.1 Traditionalist and
Experimental divide

8.2 Smooth
jazz

8.3 Acid jazz, nu jazz and
jazz rap

8.4 Punk jazz and
jazzcore

9 See also

10 Notes

11 References

12 External
links

[edit]
Definition

Jazz can be very hard to define because it spans from Ragtime waltzes to 2000s-era
fusion. Attempts have been made to define jazz from the perspective of other
musical traditions—using the point of view of European music history or African
music for example—but jazz critic Joachim Berendt argues
that all such attempts are unsatisfactory.[3]
One way to get around the definitional problems is to define the term "jazz"
more broadly. Berendt defines jazz as a "form of art music which originated in
the United States through the confrontation of blacks with European music"; he
argues that jazz differs from European music in that jazz has a "special
relationship to time, defined as 'swing'",
"a spontaneity and vitality of musical production in which improvisation plays a
role"; and "sonority and manner of phrasing which mirror the individuality of
the performing jazz musician".[3]

Double bassist Reggie Workman, saxophone
player Pharoah
Sanders, and drummer Idris Muhammad performing
in 1978

Travis Jackson has also proposed a broader definition of jazz which is able
to encompass all of the radically different eras: he states that it is music
that includes qualities such as "swinging", improvising, group interaction,
developing an 'individual voice', and being 'open' to different musical
possibilities".[4]
Krin Gabbard claims that “jazz is a construct” or category that, while
artificial, still is useful to designate “a number of musics with enough in
common to be understood as part of a coherent tradition”.[5]

While jazz may be difficult to define, improvisation is clearly
one of its key elements. Early blues was commonly structured
around a repetitive call-and-response
pattern, a common element in the African American oral
tradition. A form of folk music which rose in part from work songs and field
hollers of rural Blacks, early blues was also highly improvisational. These
features are fundamental to the nature of jazz. While in European classical music elements
of interpretation, ornamentation and accompaniment are sometimes left to the
performer's discretion, the performer's primary goal is to play a composition as
it was written.

In jazz, however, the skilled performer will interpret a tune in very
individual ways, never playing the same composition exactly the same way twice.
Depending upon the performer's mood and personal experience, interactions with
fellow musicians, or even members of the audience, a jazz musician/performer may
alter melodies, harmonies or time signature at will. The jazz soloist is
supported by a rhythm
section who "comp", by playing chords and rhythms that outline the song
structure and complement the soloist.[6]
European classical music has been said to be a composer's medium. Jazz, however,
is often characterized as the product of egalitarian creativity, interaction and
collaboration, placing equal value on the contributions of composer and
performer, 'adroitly weigh[ing] the respective claims of the composer and the
improviser'.[7]

In New Orleans and Dixieland jazz, performers
took turns playing the melody, while others improvised countermelodies. By the
swing
era, big bands were coming to rely
more on arranged music: arrangements were either written
or learned by ear and memorized—many early jazz performers could not read music.
Individual soloists would improvise within these arrangements. Later, in bebop the focus shifted back
towards small groups and minimal arrangements; the melody (known as the "head")
would be stated briefly at the start and end of a piece but the core of the
performance would be the series of improvisations in the middle. Later styles of
jazz such as modal jazz
abandoned the strict notion of a chord progression,
allowing the individual musicians to improvise even more freely within the
context of a given scale or mode.[8]
The avant-garde and free jazz idioms permit, even
call for, abandoning chords, scales, and rhythmic meters.

[edit]
Debates

There have long been debates in the jazz community over the definition and
the boundaries of “jazz”. Although alteration or transformation of jazz by new
influences has often been initially criticized as a “debasement,” Andrew Gilbert
argues that jazz has the “ability to absorb and transform influences” from
diverse musical styles.[9]
While some enthusiasts of certain types of jazz have argued for narrower
definitions which exclude many other types of music also commonly known as
"jazz", jazz musicians themselves are often reluctant to define the music they
play. Duke Ellington
summed it up by saying, "It's all music."[10]
Some critics have even stated that Ellington's music was not jazz because it was
arranged and orchestrated.[11]
On the other hand Ellington's friend Earl Hines's twenty solo
"transformative versions" of Ellington compositions (on Earl Hines Plays Duke
Ellington recorded in the 1970s) were described by Ben Ratliff, the New
York Times jazz critic, as "as good an example of the jazz process as
anything out there."[12]

Commercially oriented or popular music-influenced forms of jazz have both
long been criticized, at least since the emergence of Bop. Traditional jazz
enthusiasts have dismissed Bop, the 1970s jazz fusion era [and much else] as a
period of commercial debasement of the music. According to Bruce Johnson, jazz
music has always had a "tension between jazz as a commercial music and an art
form".[4]
Gilbert notes that as the notion of a canon of jazz is developing, the
“achievements of the past” may become "...privileged over the idiosyncratic
creativity...” and innovation of current artists. Village
Voice jazz critic Gary Giddins argues that as
the creation and dissemination of jazz is becoming increasingly
institutionalized and dominated by major entertainment firms, jazz is facing a
"...perilous future of respectability and disinterested acceptance." David Ake
warns that the creation of “norms” in jazz and the establishment of a “jazz
tradition” may exclude or sideline other newer, avant-garde forms of jazz.[4]

[edit]
Etymology of
"Jazz"

Main article: Jazz (word)

The origin of the word jazz is one of the most sought-after word origins
in modern American
English.[citation
needed] The word's intrinsic interest—the American Dialect
Society named it the Word of the Twentieth
Century—has resulted in considerable research, and its history is
well-documented. The word began as West Coast slang around 1912, the meaning of
which varied but did not refer to music or sex. It came to refer to the music in
Chicago around 1915. The
music was played in New Orleans prior to that time but was not referred to by
that name.

The word jazz makes one of its earliest appearances in San Francisco baseball
writing in 1913.[13]
Jazz was introduced to San Francisco in 1913 by William (Spike) Slattery, sports
editor of the Call, and propagated by a band-leader named Art Hickman. It
reached Chicago by 1915 but was not heard of in New York until a year later.[14]
One of the first known uses of the word appears in a March 3, 1913, baseball
article in the San Francisco Bulletin by E. T. "Scoop" Gleeson.[15]

[edit]
Origins

In the late 18th-century painting The Old
Plantation, African-Americans dance to banjo and
percussion.

By 1808 the Atlantic slave
trade had brought almost half a million Africans to the United States.
The slaves largely came from West Africa and brought
strong tribal musical traditions with them.[16]
Lavish festivals featuring African dances to drums were organized on Sundays at
Place Congo, or Congo
Square, in New
Orleans until 1843, as were similar gatherings in New England and New York. African music was
largely functional, for work or ritual, and included work songs and field
hollers. The African tradition made use of a single-line melody and call-and-response
pattern, but without the European concept of harmony. Rhythms reflected African
speech patterns, and the African use of pentatonic scales led to blue notes
in blues and jazz.[17]

The blackface Virginia Minstrels in
1843, featuring tambourine, fiddle, banjo and bones.

In the early 19th century an increasing number of black musicians learned to
play European instruments, particularly the violin, which they used to parody
European dance music in their own cakewalk dances. In turn,
European-American minstrel
show performers in blackface popularized such
music internationally, combining syncopation with European
harmonic accompaniment. Louis Moreau
Gottschalk adapted African-American cakewalk music, South American,
Caribbean and other slave melodies as piano salon music. Another influence came
from black slaves who had learned the harmonic style of hymns and incorporated it into
their own music as spirituals.[18]
The origins of the
blues are undocumented, though they can be seen as the secular counterpart
of the spirituals. Paul
Oliver has drawn attention to similarities in instruments, music and social
function to the griots of the West African savannah.[19]

[edit]
1890s–1910s

[edit]
Ragtime

Main article: Ragtime

Scott Joplin in
1907

The abolition of slavery led to new opportunities for the education of freed
African-Americans. Although strict segregation limited employment opportunities
for most blacks, many were able to find work in entertainment. Black musicians
were able to provide "low-class" entertainment in dances, minstrel
shows, and in vaudeville, by which many
marching bands formed. Black pianists played in bars, clubs, and brothels, as ragtime developed.[20][21]

Ragtime appeared as sheet music, popularized by African American musicians
such as the entertainer Ernest Hogan, whose hit
songs appeared in 1895; two years later Vess Ossman recorded a
medley of these songs as a banjo solo "Rag Time Medley".[22][23]
Also in 1897, the white composer William H. Krell published
his "Mississippi Rag" as the first written piano instrumental ragtime piece, and
Tom Turpin published his
Harlem Rag, that was the first rag published by an African-American. The
classically trained pianist Scott Joplin produced his
"Original Rags" in the following year, then in 1899 had an international hit
with "Maple Leaf Rag".
He wrote numerous popular rags, including, "The Entertainer",
combining syncopation, banjo figurations and sometimes call-and-response, which
led to the ragtime idiom being taken up by classical composers including Claude Debussy and Igor Stravinsky. Blues music was published and
popularized by W. C.
Handy, whose "Memphis Blues" of 1912
and "St. Louis Blues"
of 1914 both became jazz standards.[19]

[edit]
New Orleans music

Main article: Dixieland

The music of New
Orleans had a profound effect on the creation of early jazz. Many early jazz
performers played in venues throughout the city; the brothels and bars of the red-light district
around Basin Street,
called "Storyville".[24]
was only one of numerous neighborhoods relevant to the early days of New Orleans
jazz. In addition to dance bands, numerous marching bands played at lavish
funerals arranged by the African American and European American community. The
instruments used in marching bands and dance
bands became the basic instruments of jazz: brass and reeds tuned in the
European 12-tone scale and drums. Small bands mixing self-taught and well
educated African American musicians, many of whom came from the
funeral-procession tradition of New Orleans, played a
seminal role in the development and dissemination of early jazz, traveling
throughout Black communities in the Deep South and, from around 1914 on, Afro-Creole and
African American musicians playing in vaudeville shows took jazz to
western and northern US cities.[25]

The Bolden Band around
1905.

The cornetist
Buddy Bolden led a band
often mentioned as one of the prime movers of the style later to be called
"jazz". He played in New Orleans around 1895–1906. No recordings remain of
Bolden. Several tunes from the Bolden band repertory, including "Buddy Bolden
Blues", have been recorded by many other musicians. (Bolden became mentally ill
and spent his later decades in a mental institution.)

Morton published "Jelly Roll Blues" in 1915, the
first jazz work in print.

Afro-Creole pianist Jelly Roll Morton
began his career in Storyville. From 1904, he toured with vaudeville shows around
southern cities, also playing in Chicago and New York. His "Jelly Roll Blues",
which he composed around 1905, was published in 1915 as the first jazz
arrangement in print, introducing more musicians to the New Orleans style.[26]
In the northeastern United States, a "hot" style of playing ragtime had
developed, notably James Reese Europe's
symphonic Clef Club
orchestra in New York which
played a benefit concert at Carnegie Hall in 1912.[27][28]
The Baltimore rag style of
Eubie Blake influenced James P. Johnson's
development of "Stride" piano playing, in
which the right hand plays the melody, while the left hand provides the rhythm
and bassline.[29]

The Original
Dixieland Jass Band made the music's first recordings early in 1917, and
their "Livery Stable
Blues" became the earliest released jazz record.[30][31][32][33][34][35][36]
That year numerous other bands made recordings featuring "jazz" in the title or
band name, mostly ragtime or novelty records rather than jazz. In September 1917
W.C. Handy's Orchestra of
Memphis recorded a cover version of "Livery Stable Blues."[37]
In February 1918 James
Reese Europe's "Hellfighters" infantry band took ragtime to Europe during World War I,[38]
then on return recorded Dixieland standards including "Darktown
Strutters' Ball".[28]

[edit]
1920s and 1930s

[edit]
The Jazz Age

Prohibition
in the United States (from 1920 to 1933) banned the sale of alcoholic
drinks, resulting in illicit speakeasies becoming lively
venues of the "Jazz Age", an
era when popular music included current dance songs, novelty songs, and show
tunes. Jazz started to get a reputation as being immoral and many members of the
older generations saw it as threatening the old values in culture and promoting
the new decadent values of the Roaring 20s. Professor Henry
Van Dyke of Princeton University wrote “...it is not music at all. It’s merely
an irritation of the nerves of hearing, a sensual teasing of the strings of
physical passion.”[39]

Even the media began to denigrate jazz. The New York Times took stories and
altered headlines to pick at Jazz. For instance, villagers used pots and pans in
Siberia to scare off bears, and the newspaper stated that it was Jazz that
scared the bears away. Another story claims that Jazz caused the death of a
celebrated conductor. The actual cause of death was a fatal heart attack
(natural cause).[39]
From 1919 Kid Ory's Original
Creole Jazz Band of musicians from New Orleans played in San Francisco and Los Angeles where in 1922
they became the first black jazz band of New Orleans origin to make
recordings.[40][41]
However, the main centre developing the new "Hot Jazz" was
Chicago, where King Oliver joined
Bill
Johnson. That year also saw the first recording by Bessie Smith, the most
famous of the 1920s blues singers.[42]

The King & Carter Jazzing Orchestra
photographed in Houston, Texas, January 1921.

Bix Beiderbecke
formed The Wolverines in 1924. Also in 1924 Louis Armstrong joined
the Fletcher
Henderson dance band as featured soloist for a year, then formed his
virtuosic Hot
Five band, also popularizing scat singing.[43]
Jelly Roll Morton
recorded with the New Orleans Rhythm
Kings in an early mixed-race collaboration, then in 1926 formed his Red Hot Peppers. There
was a larger market for jazzy dance music played by white orchestras, such as Jean Goldkette's
orchestra and Paul
Whiteman's orchestra. In 1924 Whiteman commissioned Gershwin's Rhapsody in Blue,
which was premièred by Whiteman's Orchestra. Other influential large ensembles
included Fletcher
Henderson's band, Duke
Ellington's band (which opened an influential residency at the Cotton Club in 1927) in New
York, and Earl Hines's
Band in Chicago (who opened in The Grand Terrace Cafe there in 1928). All
significantly influenced the development of big band-style swing jazz.[44]

[edit]
Swing

Main articles: Swing music and 1930s in jazz

The 1930s belonged to popular swing big bands, in which some
virtuoso soloists became as famous as the band leaders. Key figures in
developing the "big" jazz band included bandleaders and arrangers Count Basie, Cab Calloway, Jimmy
and Tommy Dorsey, Duke Ellington, Benny Goodman, Fletcher Henderson,
Earl Hines, Glenn Miller, and Artie Shaw.

Trumpeter, bandleader and singer Louis Armstrong was a
much-imitated innovator of early jazz.

Swing was also dance music. It was broadcast on the radio 'live' nightly
across America for many years especially by Hines and his Grand Terrace Cafe
Orchestra broadcasting coast-to-coast from Chicago, well placed for 'live'
time-zones. Although it was a collective sound, swing also offered individual
musicians a chance to 'solo' and improvise melodic, thematic solos which could
at times be very complex and 'important' music. Over time, social strictures
regarding racial segregation began to relax in America: white bandleaders began
to recruit black musicians and black bandleaders white ones. In the mid-1930s,
Benny Goodman hired
pianist Teddy Wilson,
vibraphonist Lionel
Hampton, and guitarist Charlie Christian to
join small groups. An early 1940s style known as "jumping the blues" or jump blues used small combos,
uptempo music, and blues chord
progressions. Jump blues drew on boogie-woogie from
the 1930s. Kansas City Jazz in the
1930s as exemplified by tenor saxophonist Lester Young marked the
transition from big bands to the bebop influence of the 1940s.

[edit]
Beginnings of European
jazz

Outside of the United States the beginnings of a distinct European style of
jazz emerged in France with the Quintette du
Hot Club de France which began in 1934. Belgian guitar virtuoso Django Reinhardt
popularized gypsy jazz, a
mix of 1930s American swing, French dance hall "musette" and Eastern European
folk with a languid, seductive feel. The main instruments are steel stringed
guitar, violin, and double bass. Solos pass from
one player to another as the guitar and bass play the role of the rhythm section. Some
music researchers hold that it was Philadelphia's Eddie Lang (guitar) and Joe Venuti (violin) who
pioneered the gypsy jazz
form,[45]
which was brought to France after they had been heard live or on Okeh Records in the late
1920s.[46]

[edit]
1940s and 1950s

[edit]
Dixieland revival

Louis Armstrong in
1953

Main articles: 1940s in jazz and 1950s in jazz

In the late 1940s there was a revival of "Dixieland" music, harkening
back to the original contrapuntal New Orleans
style. This was driven in large part by record company reissues of early jazz
classics by the Oliver, Morton, and Armstrong bands of the 1930s. There were two
populations of musicians involved in the revival. One group consisted of players
who had begun their careers playing in the traditional style, and were either
returning to it, or continuing what they had been playing all along, such as Bob Crosby's Bobcats, Max Kaminsky, Eddie Condon, and Wild Bill Davison.
Most of this group were originally Midwesterners, although there were a small
number of New Orleans musicians involved. The second population of revivalists
consisted of young musicians such as the Lu Watters band. By the late
1940s, Louis
Armstrong's Allstars band became a leading ensemble. Through the 1950s and
1960s, Dixieland was one of the most commercially popular jazz styles in the US,
Europe, and Japan, although critics paid little attention to it.[47]

[edit]
Bebop

Main article: Bebop

See also: List of bebop
musicians

In the early 1940s bebop performers helped to shift jazz from danceable
popular music towards a more challenging "musician's music." Differing greatly
from swing, early bebop divorced itself from dance music, establishing itself
more as an art form but lessening its potential popular and commercial value.
Since bebop was meant to be listened to, not danced to, it used faster tempos.
Beboppers introduced new forms of chromaticism and dissonance into jazz; the
dissonant tritone (or
"flatted fifth") interval became the "most important interval of bebop"[48]
and players engaged in a more abstracted form of chord-based improvisation which
used "passing" chords, substitute chords, and
altered chords. The style
of drumming shifted as well to a more elusive and explosive style, in which the
ride cymbal was used to
keep time, while the snare and bass drum were used for accents.

File:Thelonious
Monk 1967.jpg

Thelonious Monk at Expo 67, 1967, Montreal, Quebec. Bassist Larry Gales seen in
background.

These divergences from the jazz mainstream of the time initially met with a
divided, sometimes hostile response among fans and fellow musicians, especially
established swing players, who bristled at the new harmonic sounds. To hostile
critics, bebop seemed to be filled with "racing, nervous phrases".[49]
Despite the initial friction, by the 1950s bebop had become an accepted part of
the jazz vocabulary. The most influential bebop musicians included saxophonist
Charlie Parker,
pianists Bud Powell and Thelonious Monk,
trumpeters Dizzy
Gillespie and Clifford
Brown, and drummer Max
Roach.

[edit]
Cool jazz

By the end of the 1940s, the nervous energy and tension of bebop was replaced
with a tendency towards calm and smoothness, with the sounds of cool jazz, which favoured
long, linear melodic lines. It emerged in New York City, as a result
of the mixture of the styles of predominantly white jazz musicians and black
bebop musicians, and it dominated jazz in the first half of the 1950s. The
starting point were a series of singles on Capitol Records in 1949
and 1950 of a nonet led by
trumpeter Miles Davis,
collected and released first on a ten-inch and later a twelve-inch as the Birth of the Cool.
Cool jazz recordings by Chet
Baker, Dave Brubeck,
Bill Evans, Gil Evans, Stan Getz and the Modern Jazz Quartet
usually have a "lighter" sound which avoided the aggressive tempos and harmonic
abstraction of bebop. Cool jazz later became strongly identified with the West Coast jazz scene,
but also had a particular resonance in Europe, especially Scandinavia, with
emergence of such major figures as baritone saxophonist Lars Gullin and pianist Bengt Hallberg. The
theoretical underpinnings of cool jazz were set out by the blind Chicago pianist
Lennie Tristano, and
its influence stretches into such later developments as Bossa nova, modal jazz, and
even free jazz. See also the list
of cool jazz and West Coast musicians for further detail.

"Take
The 'A' Train"

This 1941 sample of Duke Ellington's
signature tune is an example of the swing
style.

"Yardbird
Suite"

Excerpt from a saxophone solo by Charlie Parker. The
fast, complex rhythms and substitute chords
of bebop exhibited were
of pivotal importance to the formation of Jazz music.

"Mr.
P.C."

This hard blues by John Coltrane is an
example of hard bop, a
post-bebop style which is informed by gospel music, blues and work
songs.

"Birds
of Fire"

This 1973 piece by the Mahavishnu
Orchestra merges jazz improvisation and rock instrumentation into jazz
fusion

"The
Jazzstep"

This 2000 track by Courtney Pine shows
how electronica and
hip hop influences
can be incorporated into modern jazz.

Problems listening to these files? See media
help.

[edit]
Hard bop

Main article: Hard bop

Hard bop is an extension of bebop (or "bop") music that incorporates
influences from rhythm
and blues, gospel
music, and blues,
especially in the saxophone
and piano playing. Hard bop was
developed in the mid-1950s, partly in response to the vogue for cool jazz in the early 1950s.
The hard bop style coalesced in 1953 and 1954, paralleling the rise of rhythm
and blues. Miles Davis'
performance of "Walkin'" the title track of his album of the same year, at the
very first Newport
Jazz Festival in 1954, announced the style to the jazz world. The quintet Art
Blakey and the Jazz Messengers, fronted by Blakey and featuring pianist
Horace Silver and
trumpeter Clifford
Brown, were leaders in the hard bop movement along with Davis. (See also List of Hard bop
musicians)

[edit]
Modal jazz

Main article: Modal jazz

Modal jazz is a development beginning in the later 1950s which takes the mode,
or musical scale, as the basis of musical structure and improvisation.
Previously, the goal of the soloist was to play a solo that fit into a given chord progression.
However, with modal jazz, the soloist creates a melody using one or a small
number of modes. The emphasis in this approach shifts from harmony to
melody.[50]
The modal theory stems from a work by George
Russell, but again Miles
Davis unveiled this shift to the rest of the jazz world with Kind of Blue, an
exploration of the possibilities of modal jazz and the best selling jazz album
of all time. Other innovators in this style include Jackie McLean,[51]
John Coltrane and Bill Evans, also present on
Kind of Blue, as well as later musicians such as Herbie Hancock.

[edit]
Free jazz

Main article: Free jazz

A shot from a 2006 performance by Peter Brötzmann, a
key figure in European free jazz

Free jazz and the
related form of avant-garde jazz broke
through into an open space of "free tonality" in which meter, beat, and formal
symmetry all disappeared, and a range of World music from India,
Africa, and Arabia were melded into an intense, even religiously ecstatic or
orgiastic style of playing.[52]
While loosely inspired by bebop, free jazz tunes gave players much more
latitude; the loose harmony
and tempo was deemed
controversial when this approach was first developed. The bassist Charles Mingus is also
frequently associated with the avant-garde in jazz, although his compositions
draw from myriad styles and genres. The first major stirrings came in the 1950s,
with the early work of Ornette Coleman and Cecil Taylor. In the 1960s,
performers included John
Coltrane, Archie
Shepp, Sun Ra, Albert Ayler, Pharoah Sanders, and
others. Free jazz quickly found a foothold in Europe – in part because
musicians such as Ayler, Taylor, Steve Lacy and Eric Dolphy spent extended
periods in Europe. A distinctive European contemporary jazz (often incorporating
elements of free jazz but not limited to it) flourished also because of the
emergence of musicians (such as John Surman, Zbigniew
Namyslowski, Albert Mangelsdorff,
Kenny Wheeler and Mike Westbrook) anxious
to develop new approaches reflecting their national and regional musical
cultures and contexts. Keith Jarrett has been
prominent in defending free jazz from criticism by traditionalists in the 1990s
and 2000s.

[edit]
1960s and 1970s

Main articles: 1960s in jazz and 1970s in jazz

[edit]
Latin jazz

Main article: Latin jazz

Latin jazz combines rhythms from African and Latin American countries, often
played on instruments such as conga, timbale, güiro, and claves, with jazz and classical
harmonies played on typical jazz instruments (piano, double bass, etc.). There
are two main varieties: Afro-Cuban jazz was
played in the US right after the bebop period, while Brazilian jazz became
more popular in the 1960s. Afro-Cuban jazz began as a movement in the mid-1950s
as bebop musicians such as Dizzy Gillespie and Billy Taylor started
Afro-Cuban bands influenced by such Cuban and Puerto Rican musicians as Xavier Cugat, Tito Puente, and Arturo Sandoval. Brazilian jazz such as bossa nova is derived from samba, with influences from jazz
and other 20th century classical and popular music styles. Bossa is generally
moderately paced, with melodies sung in Portuguese or English. The style was
pioneered by Brazilians João Gilberto and Antônio Carlos
Jobim. The related term jazz-samba describes an adaptation of bossa nova
compositions to the jazz idiom by American performers such as Stan Getz and Charlie Byrd.

Bossa nova was made
popular by Elizete
Cardoso's recording of Chega de Saudade on
the Canção do
Amor Demais LP, composed by Vinícius de
Moraes (lyrics) and Antonio Carlos Jobim (music). The initial releases by
Gilberto and the 1959 film Black Orpheus brought
significant popularity in Brazil and elsewhere in Latin America, which
spread to North America via visiting American jazz musicians. The resulting
recordings by Charlie Byrd and Stan Getz cemented its popularity and led to a
worldwide boom with 1963's Getz/Gilberto,
numerous recordings by famous jazz performers such as Ella Fitzgerald (Ella Abraça
Jobim) and Frank
Sinatra (Francis
Albert Sinatra & Antônio Carlos Jobim), and the entrenchment of the
bossa nova style as a lasting influence in world music for several decades and
even up to the present.

[edit]
Post bop

Main article: Post-bop

Post-bop jazz is a form of small-combo jazz derived from earlier bop styles.
The genre's origins lie in seminal work by John Coltrane, Miles Davis, Bill Evans, Charles Mingus, Wayne Shorter and Herbie Hancock.
Generally, the term post-bop is taken to mean jazz from the mid-sixties onward
that assimilates influence from hard bop, modal jazz, the avant-garde, and free jazz, without necessarily
being immediately identifiable as any of the above.

Much "post-bop" was recorded on Blue Note Records. Key
albums include Speak No
Evil by Wayne
Shorter; The Real
McCoy by McCoy
Tyner; Maiden
Voyage by Herbie
Hancock; Miles
Smiles by Miles Davis; and Search for the New
Land by Lee Morgan
(an artist not typically associated with the post-bop genre). Most post-bop
artists worked in other genres as well, with a particularly strong overlap with
later hard bop.

[edit]
Soul jazz

Main article: Soul jazz

Soul jazz was a development of hard bop which incorporated
strong influences from blues,
gospel and rhythm and blues in
music for small groups, often the organ trio, which partnered a
Hammond organ player
with a drummer and a tenor saxophonist. Unlike hard bop, soul jazz generally
emphasized repetitive grooves and melodic
hooks, and improvisations were often
less complex than in other jazz styles. Horace Silver had a large
influence on the soul jazz style, with songs that used funky and often gospel-based piano vamps. It often had a
steadier "funk" style groove, different from the swing rhythms typical of much
hard bop. Important soul jazz organists included Jimmy McGriff and Jimmy Smith and
Johnny Hammond
Smith, and influential tenor saxophone players included Eddie "Lockjaw"
Davis and Stanley
Turrentine. (See also List of
soul-jazz musicians.)

[edit]
Jazz fusion

Main article: Jazz fusion

Fusion trumpeter Miles Davis in
1989

In the late 1960s and early 1970s the hybrid form of jazz-rock fusion
was developed by combining jazz improvisation with rock rhythms, electric
instruments, and the highly amplified stage sound of rock musicians such as Jimi Hendrix. All Music
Guide states that "..until around 1967, the worlds of jazz and rock were nearly
completely separate." However, "...as rock became more creative and its
musicianship improved, and as some in the jazz world became bored with hard bop and did not want to
play strictly avant-garde music, the two
different idioms began to trade ideas and occasionally combine forces." [53]
Miles Davis made the breakthrough into fusion in 1970s with his album Bitches Brew. Musicians
who worked with Davis formed the four most influential fusion groups: Weather Report and Mahavishnu
Orchestra emerged in 1971 and were soon followed by Return to Forever and
The Headhunters.
Although jazz purists protested the blend of jazz and rock, some of jazz's
significant innovators crossed over from the contemporary hard bop scene into
fusion. Jazz fusion music often uses mixed meters, odd time signatures,
syncopation, and complex chords and harmonies. In addition to using the electric
instruments of rock, such as the electric guitar, electric bass, electric piano,
and synthesizer keyboards, fusion also used the powerful amplification, "fuzz" pedals, wah-wah
pedals, and other effects used by 1970s-era rock bands. Notable performers
of jazz fusion included Miles
Davis, keyboardists Joe
Zawinul, Chick Corea,
Herbie Hancock,
vibraphonist Gary Burton,
drummer Tony Williams,
violinist Jean-Luc
Ponty, guitarists Larry
Coryell, Al Di Meola,
John
McLaughlin and Frank
Zappa, saxophonist Wayne Shorter, and
bassists Jaco
Pastorius and Stanley
Clarke. Jazz fusion was also popular in Japan where the band Casiopea released over thirty
albums praising Jazz Fusion.

[edit]
Jazz funk

Main article: jazz-funk

Developed by the mid-1970s, is characterized by a strong back
beat (groove), electrified
sounds,[54]
and often, the presence of the first electronic analog synthesizers.
The integration of Funk, Soul, and
R&B music and
styles into jazz resulted in the creation of a genre whose spectrum is indeed
quite wide and ranges from strong jazz
improvisation to soul, funk or disco with jazz arrangements, jazz riffs,
and jazz solos, and sometimes soul vocals.[55]

At the jazz end of the spectrum, jazz-funk characteristics include a
departure from ternary rhythm (near-triplet), i.e. the "swing", to the more
danceable and unfamiliar binary rhythm, known as the "groove". Jazz-funk also
draws influences from traditional African music, Latin American
rhythms, and Jamaican reggae,
most notably Kingston band leader Sonny Bradshaw. A second
characteristic of Jazz-funk music is the use of electric instruments, and the
first use of analogue electronic instruments notably by Herbie Hancock, whose
jazz-funk period saw him surrounded on stage or in the studio by several Moog synthesizers. The
ARP Odyssey, ARP String Ensemble,
and Hohner D6
Clavinet also became popular at the time. A third feature is the shift of
proportions between composition and improvisation. Arrangements, melody, and
overall writing were heavily emphasized.

[edit]
Other trends

There was a resurgence of interest in jazz and other forms of African
American cultural expression during the Black Arts Movement
and Black nationalist
period of the early 1970s. Musicians such as Pharoah Sanders, Hubert Laws and Wayne Shorter began using
African instruments such as kalimbas, cowbells, beaded
gourds and other instruments not traditional to jazz. Musicians began
improvising jazz tunes on unusual instruments, such as the jazz harp (Alice Coltrane),
electrically amplified and wah-wah pedaled jazz violin (Jean-Luc Ponty), and even
bagpipes (Rufus Harley).
Jazz continued to expand and change, influenced by other types of music, such as
world music, avant garde classical
music, and rock and pop music. Guitarist John
McLaughlin's Mahavishnu
Orchestra played a mix of rock and jazz infused with East
Indian influences. The ECM record label
began in Germany in the 1970s with artists including Keith Jarrett, Paul Bley, the Pat Metheny Group, Jan Garbarek, Ralph Towner, Kenny Wheeler, John Taylor, John Surman and Eberhard Weber,
establishing a new chamber
music aesthetic, featuring mainly acoustic instruments, and sometimes
incorporating elements of world music and folk music.

[edit]
1980s–2010s

Main articles: 1980s in jazz, 1990s in jazz, and 2000s in jazz

In 1987, the US House of Representatives and Senate passed a bill proposed by
Democratic Representative John Conyers, Jr. to
define jazz as a unique form of American music stating, among other things,
"...that jazz is hereby designated as a rare and valuable national American
treasure to which we should devote our attention, support and resources to make
certain it is preserved, understood and promulgated." [56]

[edit]
Traditionalist
and Experimental divide

In the 1980s, the jazz community shrank dramatically and split. A mainly
older audience retained an interest in traditional and straight-ahead jazz
styles. Wynton
Marsalis strove to create music within what he believed was the tradition,
creating extensions of small and large forms initially pioneered by such artists
as Louis Armstrong
and Duke Ellington. In
the 2000s, straight-ahead jazz
continues to appeal to a core group of listeners. Well-established jazz
musicians, such as Dave
Brubeck, Wynton
Marsalis, Sonny
Rollins, and Wayne
Shorter continue to perform and record. In the 1990s and 2000s, a number of
young musicians emerged, including US pianists Brad Mehldau, Jason Moran and
Vijay Iyer, guitarist Kurt Rosenwinkel,
vibraphonist Stefon
Harris, trumpeters Roy
Hargrove and Terence Blanchard,
saxophonists Chris
Potter and Joshua
Redman, and bassist Christian McBride.

In the United States, several musicians and groups explored the more
experimental end of the spectrum, including trumpeters Rob Mazurek and Cuong Vu, saxophonist Ken Vandermark, guitarist
Nels Cline, bassist Todd Sickafoose,
keyboardist Craig
Taborn, drummer/percussionist John Hollenbeck,
guitarist John
Scofield, and the groups Medeski Martin &
Wood and The Bad
Plus. Outside of the US, the Swedish group E.S.T. and
British groups Acoustic
Ladyland, Led Bib, and Polar Bear gained popularity
with their progressive takes on jazz. A number of new vocalists have achieved
popularity with a mix of traditional jazz and pop/rock forms, such as Diana Krall, Norah Jones, Cassandra Wilson, Kurt Elling, and Jamie Cullum.

[edit]
Smooth jazz

Main article: smooth jazz

In the early 1980s, a commercial form of jazz fusion called pop fusion or
"smooth jazz" became successful and garnered significant radio airplay. Smooth
jazz saxophonists include Grover Washington,
Jr., Kenny G, Kirk Whalum, Boney James, and David Sanborn. Smooth jazz
received frequent airplay with more straight-ahead jazz in "quiet storm" time slots at
radio stations in urban markets across the U.S., helping to establish or bolster
the careers of vocalists including Al Jarreau, Anita Baker, Chaka Khan, and Sade. In this
same time period Chaka Khan released Echoes of an Era,
which featured Joe
Henderson, Freddie
Hubbard, Chick Corea,
Stanley Clarke, and Lenny White. She also
released the song "And the Melody Still Lingers On (Night in Tunisia)" with Dizzy Gillespie reviving
the solo break from "Night in Tunisia".

In general, smooth jazz is downtempo (the most widely played tracks are in
the 90–105 BPM range), layering a
lead, melody-playing instrument (saxophones–especially soprano and tenor–are the most
popular, with legato electric guitar playing
a close second) over a backdrop that typically consists of programmed electronic
drum rhythms, synth pads and samples[citation
needed]. In his Newsweek article "The
Problem With Jazz Criticism"[57]
Stanley Crouch
considers Miles Davis'
playing of fusion as a turning point that led to smooth jazz. In Aaron J. West's
introduction to his analysis of smooth jazz, "Caught Between Jazz and Pop" he
states,

I challenge the prevalent marginalization and malignment of smooth jazz in
the standard jazz narrative. Furthermore, I question the assumption that
smooth jazz is an unfortunate and unwelcomed evolutionary outcome of the
jazz-fusion era. Instead, I argue that smooth jazz is a long-lived musical
style that merits multi-disciplinary analyses of its origins, critical
dialogues, performance practice, and reception.[58]

[edit]
Acid jazz, nu jazz
and jazz rap

Acid jazz developed in
the UK over the 1980s and 1990s and influenced by jazz-funk and electronic dance music.
Jazz-funk musicians such as Roy
Ayers and Donald Byrd
are often credited as forerunners of acid jazz.[59]
While acid jazz often contains various types of electronic composition
(sometimes including sampling or live DJ cutting and scratching), it is just as
likely to be played live by musicians, who often showcase jazz interpretation as
part of their performance. Nu
jazz is influenced by jazz harmony and melodies, there are usually no
improvisational aspects. It ranges from combining live instrumentation with
beats of jazz house, exemplified by St Germain, Jazzanova and Fila Brazillia, to more
band-based improvised jazz with electronic elements such as that of The Cinematic
Orchestra, Kobol, and the Norwegian "future
jazz" style pioneered by Bugge Wesseltoft, Jaga Jazzist, Nils Petter
Molvær, and others. Nu jazz can be very experimental in nature and can vary
widely in sound and concept.

Jazz rap developed in the
late 1980s and early 1990s, and incorporates jazz influence into hip hop. In 1988, Gang Starr released the debut
single "Words I Manifest", sampling Dizzy Gillespie's 1962
"Night in Tunisia", and Stetsasonic released
"Talkin' All That Jazz", sampling Lonnie Liston Smith.
Gang Starr's debut LP, No
More Mr. Nice Guy (Wild Pitch, 1989),
and their track "Jazz Thing" (CBS, 1990)
for the soundtrack of Mo' Better Blues,
sampling Charlie
Parker and Ramsey
Lewis. Gang Starr also collaborated with Branford Marsalis and
Terence
Blanchard.Groups making up the collective known as the Native Tongues
Posse tended towards jazzy releases; these include the Jungle Brothers' debut
Straight Out the
Jungle (Warlock, 1988) and A Tribe Called
Quest's People's
Instinctive Travels and the Paths of Rhythm (Jive, 1990) and The Low End
Theory (Jive, 1991). The Low End Theory has become one of hip
hop's most acclaimed
albums, and earned praise too from jazz bassist Ron Carter, who played double
bass on one track. Beginning in 1993, rapper Guru's Jazzmatazz series used jazz
musicians during the studio recordings. Though jazz rap had achieved little
mainstream success, jazz legend Miles Davis' final album
(released posthumously in 1992), Doo-Bop, was based around
hip hop beats and collaborations with producer Easy Mo Bee. Davis'
ex-bandmate Herbie
Hancock returned to hip hop influences in the mid-nineties, releasing the
album Dis Is Da Drum in
1994.

[edit]
Punk jazz and
jazzcore

John Zorn performing in
2006.

The relaxation of orthodoxy concurrent with post-punk in London and New
York City led to a new appreciation for jazz. In London, the Pop Group began to mix free
jazz, along with dub reggae, into their brand of punk rock.[60]
In NYC, No Wave took direct
inspiration from both free jazz and punk. Examples of this style include Lydia Lunch's Queen of
Siam,[61]
the work of James
Chance and the Contortions, who mixed Soul with free jazz and punk,[61]
Gray, and the Lounge Lizards,[61]
who were the first group to call themselves "punk jazz".

John Zorn began to make
note of the emphasis on speed and dissonance that was becoming prevalent in punk
rock and incorporated this into free jazz. This began in 1986 with the album
Spy vs. Spy, a
collection of Ornette
Coleman tunes done in the contemporary thrashcore style.[62]
The same year, Sonny
Sharrock, Peter
Brötzmann, Bill Laswell, and Ronald Shannon
Jackson recorded the first album under the name Last Exit, a similarly
aggressive blend of thrash and free jazz.[63]
These developments are the origins of jazzcore, the fusion of free jazz
with hardcore punk.

In the 1990s, punk jazz and jazzcore began to reflect the increasing
awareness of elements of extreme metal
(particularly thrash
metal and death
metal) in hardcore punk. A new style of "metallic jazzcore" was developed by
Iceburn, from Salt Lake City,
and Candiria, from New York
City, though anticipated by Naked City and Pain Killer. This tendency also takes
inspiration from jazz inflections in technical death
metal, such as the work of Cynic and Atheist.

[edit]
See also

Glossary
of jazz and popular musical terms

Jazz poetry

List of jazz
festivals

List of
jazz guitarists

List
of jazz institutions and organizations

List of jazz
pianists

List of
jazz violinists

List of jazz
vocalists

Museum of
African American Music

Timeline
of jazz education

[edit]
Notes

^ Bill Kirchner,
The Oxford Companion to Jazz, Oxford University Press, 2005, Chapter
Two.

^ Alyn Shipton,
A New History of Jazz, 2nd. ed., Continuum, 2007, pp. 4–5

^ a
b
Joachim E. Berendt. The Jazz Book: From Ragtime to Fusion and Beyond.
Translated by H. and B. Bredigkeit with Dan Morgenstern. 1981. Lawrence Hill
Books. Page 371

^ a
b
c
In Review of The Cambridge Companion to Jazz[dead
link] by Peter Elsdon, FZMw (Frankfurt Journal of
Musicology) No. 6, 2003

^ Cooke, Mervyn; Horn, David G. (2002). The Cambridge
companion to jazz. New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 1, 6. ISBN 0521663881.

^ Jazz Drum Lessons - Drumbook.org

^ Giddins 1998
70.

^ (e.g., "So What" on the
Miles Davis album Kind of Blue)

^ In "Jazz Inc."[dead
link] by Andrew Gilbert, Metro Times, December
23, 1998

^ Luebbers, Johannes (2008-09-08). "It's All Music".
Resonate (Australian Music Centre).

^
Schuller, Gunther (1991). The swing era.
Oxford University Press.

^ Ratliff 2002,
19.

^ Wilton, David (2004). Word Myths: Debunking
Linguistic Urban Legends. Oxford University Press. pp. ?. ISBN 0-19-517284-1.

^ Mencken, H. L.
The American Language, Supplement II. Knopf, 1948, p. 709.

^ "McCarl has
been heralded all along the line as a 'busher,' but now it develops that this
dope is very much to the 'jazz.'" Three days later, Gleeson writes: "Everybody
has come back to the old town full of the old 'jazz' and [the San Francisco
Seals] promise to knock the fans off their feet with their playing. What is
the 'jazz'? Why, it’s a little of that 'old life,' the 'gin-i-ker,' the 'pep,'
otherwise known as the enthusiasalum [sic]. A grain of 'jazz' and you feel
like going out and eating your way through Twin Peaks. [...] The team which
speeded into town this morning comes pretty close to representing the pick of
the army. Its members have trained on ragtime and 'jazz' and manager Dell
Howard says there’s no stopping them." E. T. “Scoop” Gleeson, March 3, 1913,
San Francisco Bulletin.
In 1938, Gleeson recalled the origin of
jazz: "Similarly the very word 'jazz' itself, came into general usage at the
same time. We were all seated around the dinner table at Boyes [Springs,
Sonoma County, the Seals spring training site,] and William ('Spike')
Slattery, then sports editor of The Call, spoke about something being
the 'jazz,' or the old 'gin-iker fizz.' 'Spike' had picked up the expression
in a crap game. Whenever one of the players rolled the dice he would shout,
'Come on, the old jazz.' For the next week we gave 'jazz' a great play in all
our stories. And when Hickman’s orchestra swung into action for the evening’s
dances, it was natural to find it included as 'the jazziest tune tooters in
all the Valley of the Moon.'" in E. T. Gleeson, "I Remember the Birth of
Jazz," The Call-Bulletin, September 3, 1938, p. 3, col. 1, reprinted in
Cohen, Jazz Revisited.

^ Cooke 1999,
pp. 7–9

^ Cooke 1999,
pp. 11–14

^ Cooke 1999,
pp. 14–17, 27–28

^ a
b
Cooke 1999,
p. 18

^ Cooke 1999,
pp. 28, 47

^ Catherine Schmidt-Jones (2006). "Ragtime".
Connexions. http://cnx.org/content/m10878/latest/. Retrieved 2007-10-18.

^ Cooke 1999,
pp. 28–29

^ "The
First Ragtime Records (1897–1903)". http://www.redhotjazz.com/firstragtimerecords.html. Retrieved 2007-10-18.

^ Cooke 1999,
pp. 47, 50

^
"Original Creole
Orchestra". The Red Hot Archive. http://www.redhotjazz.com/creole.html. Retrieved 2007-10-23.

^ Cooke 1999,
pp. 38, 56

^ Cooke 1999,
p. 78

^ a
b
Floyd Levin (1911). "Jim Europe's
369th Infantry "Hellfighters" Band". The Red Hot Archive. http://www.redhotjazz.com/hellfighters.html. Retrieved 2007-10-24.

^ Cooke 1999,
pp. 41–42

^ Schoenherr, Steven. "Recording Technology History". history.sandiego.edu. http://history.sandiego.edu/GEN/recording/notes.html. Retrieved 2008-12-24.

^ Thomas, Bob (1994). "The Origins of Big
Band Music". redhotjazz.com. http://www.redhotjazz.com/bigband.html. Retrieved 2008-12-24.

^ Alexander, Scott. "The First Jazz
Records". redhotjazz.com. http://www.redhotjazz.com/jazz1917.html. Retrieved 2008-12-24.

^ "Jazz
Milestones". apassion4jazz.net. http://www.apassion4jazz.net/milestones.html. Retrieved 2008-12-24.

^ "Original Dixieland Jazz Band Biography". pbs.org. http://www.pbs.org/jazz/biography/artist_id_original_dixieland_jazz_band.htm. Retrieved 2008-12-24.

^ Martin, Henry; Waters, Keith (2005). Jazz: The First 100 Years. Thomson Wadsworth.
p. 55. ISBN 0534628044. http://books.google.com/?id=kuz4EHH05I4C&pg=PT84&lpg=PT84&dq=first+jazz+recording.

^ "Tim Gracyk's
Phonographs, Singers, and Old Records – Jass in 1916–1917 and Tin Pan
Alley". http://www.gracyk.com/jasband.shtml. Retrieved 2007-10-27.

^ "The First Jazz
Records". The Red Hot Archive. http://www.redhotjazz.com/jazz1917.html. Retrieved 2007-10-27.

^ Cooke 1999,
p. 44

^ a
b
Ward, Geoffrey C.; Ken Burns (2000). Jazz: A
History of America's Music. Alfred A. Knopf. p. 79.

^ Cooke 1999,
p. 54

^ "Kid Ory". The Red
Hot Archive. http://www.redhotjazz.com/ory.html. Retrieved 2007-10-29.

^ "Bessie Smith".
The Red Hot Archive. http://www.redhotjazz.com/bessie.html. Retrieved 2007-10-29.

^ Cooke 1999,
pp. 56–59, 78–79, 66–70

^ Cooke 1999,
pp. 82–83, 100–103

^ "Ed Lang and his
Orchestra". www.redhotjazz.com. http://www.redhotjazz.com/edlango.html. Retrieved 2008-03-28.

^ Crow, Bill (1990). Jazz Anecdotes. New York:
Oxford University Press.

^ Collier,
1978

^ Joachim
Berendt. "The Jazz Book". 1981. Page 15.

^ Joachim
Berendt. "The Jazz Book". 1981. Page 16.

^ Litweiler, John (1984). The Freedom Principle: Jazz
After 1958. Da Capo. pp. 110–111. ISBN 0-306-80377-1.

^ Litweiler, John (1984). The Freedom Principle: Jazz
After 1958. Da Capo. pp. 120–123. ISBN 0-306-80377-1.

^ Joachim
Berendt. "The Jazz Book". 1981. Page 21.

^ "Explore:
Fusion". AllMusic. http://www.allmusic.com/explore/style/d299. Retrieved 2010-11-07.

^ "Free
Jazz-Funk Music: Album, Track and Artist Charts". Rhapsody Online —
Rhapsody.com. 2010-10-20. http://www.rhapsody.com/jazz/jazzfunk/more.html. Retrieved 2010-11-07.

^
"allmusic".
allmusic. http://www.allmusic.com/explore/style/d202. Retrieved 2010-11-07.

^ It
passed in the House of Representatives on September 23rd, 1987 and it passed
the Senate on November 4th, 1987. The entire six point mandate can be found on
the HR-57 Center for the Preservation of Jazz and Blues website. HR-57 Center
for the Preservation of Jazz and Blues – http://www.hr57.org/hconres57.html

^ Stanley Crouch (2003-06-05). "Opinion: The Problem
With Jazz Criticism". Newsweek. newsweek.com.
http://www.newsweek.com/id/58477. Retrieved 2010-04-09.

^ "Caught Between Jazz and Pop: The Contested Origins, Criticism,
Performance Practice, and Reception of Smooth Jazz".
Digital.library.unt.edu. 2010-10-23. http://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc9722/. Retrieved 2010-11-07.

^ Ginell, Richard S.. "allmusic on Roy
Ayers". Allmusic.com. http://www.allmusic.com/artist/p6035. Retrieved 2010-11-07. [dead
link]

^ Dave Lang,
Perfect Sound Forever, February 1999. [1]
Access date: November 15, 2008.

^ a
b
c
Bangs, Lester. "Free Jazz / Punk Rock". Musician Magazine, 1979. [2] Access date: July 20, 2008.

^ ""House Of Zorn,"
Goblin Archives, at". Sonic.net. http://www.sonic.net/~goblin/8zorn.html. Retrieved 2010-11-07.

^ "Progressive Ears Album Reviews". Progressiveears.com.
2007-10-19. http://www.progressiveears.com/asp/reviews.asp?albumID=4193&bhcp=1. Retrieved 2010-11-07.

[edit]
References

Adorno, Theodor.
"Prisms." The MIT Press: Cambridge, MA. 1967.

Allen, William
Francis, Charles Pickard
Ware, and Lucy McLim Garrison, eds. 1867. Slave
Songs of the United States. New York: A Simpson & Co. Electronic
edition, Chapel Hill, N. C.: Academic Affairs Library, University of North
Carolina at Chapel Hill, 2000.

Joachim Ernst Berendt, Günther Huesmann (Bearb.): Das Jazzbuch. 7.
Auflage. S. Fischer Verlag, Frankfurt am Main 2005, ISBN
3-10-003802-9

Burns, Ken, and Geoffrey C. Ward. 2000. Jazz—A History of America's
Music. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. Also: The Jazz Film Project, Inc.

Cooke, Mervyn (1999). Jazz. London:
Thames and Hudson. ISBN 0-500-20318-0. .

Carr, Ian. Music Outside: Contemporary Jazz in Britain. 2nd
edition. London: Northway. ISBN
978-0-9550908-6-8

Collier, James Lincoln. The Making of Jazz: A Comprehensive History
(Dell Publishing Co., 1978)

Davis, Miles. Boplicity. 2005. ISBN 4-006408-264637.

Elsdon, Peter. 2003. "The Cambridge Companion to Jazz, Edited by
Mervyn Cooke and David Horn, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002.
Review." Frankfürter Zeitschrift für Musikwissenschaft 6:159–75.

Gang Starr. 2006.
Mass Appeal: The Best of Gang Starr. CD recording 72435-96708-2-9. New
York: Virgin Records.

Giddins, Gary. 1998. Visions of Jazz: The First Century New York:
Oxford University Press. ISBN
0195076753

Godbolt, Jim. 2005. A History of Jazz in Britain 1919–50 London:
Northway. ISBN
0-9537040-5-X

Gridley, Mark C. 2004. Concise Guide to Jazz, fourth edition. Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Pearson/Prentice Hall. ISBN
0131826573

Hersch, Charles (2009). Subversive Sounds:
Race and the Birth of Jazz in New Orleans. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 9780226328683.

Kenney, William Howland. 1993. Chicago Jazz: A Cultural History,
1904–1930. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN
0195064534 (cloth); paperback reprint 1994 ISBN
0195092600

Oliver, Paul (1970).
Savannah Syncopators: African Retentions in the Blues. London: Studio
Vista. ISBN 0-289-79827-2. .

Mandel, Howard. 2007. Miles, Ornette, Cecil: Jazz Beyond Jazz.
Routledge. ISBN
0415967147.

Porter, Eric. 2002. What Is This Thing Called Jazz? African American
Musicians as Artists, Critics and Activists. University of California
Press, Ltd. London, England.

Ratliffe, Ben. 2002. Jazz: A Critic's Guide to the 100 Most Important
Recordings. The New York Times Essential Library. New York: Times Books.
ISBN
0805070680

Scaruffi, Piero: A History of Jazz Music 1900–2000. 2007. Omniware.
ISBN
978-0-9765531-3-7

Schuller, Gunther.
1968. Early Jazz: Its Roots and Musical Development. Oxford University
Press. New printing 1986.

Schuller, Gunther.
1991. The Swing Era: The Development of Jazz, 1930–1945. Oxford
University Press.

Searle, Chris. 2008. Forward Groove: Jazz and the Real World from Louis
Armstrong to Gilad Atzmon. London: Northway. ISBN
978-0-9550908-7-5

Szwed, John Francis. 2000. Jazz 101: A Complete Guide to Learning and
Loving Jazz. New York: Hyperion. ISBN
0786884967

Vacher, Peter. 2004. Soloists and Sidemen: American Jazz Stories.
London: Northway. ISBN
978-0953704040

Yanow, Scott. 2004.
Jazz on Film: The Complete Story of the Musicians and Music Onscreen.
(Backbeat Books) ISBN
0879307838

[edit]
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