Reggae

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Reggae

Stylistic origins

R&B •
Jazz • Mento • Calypso •
Ska • Rocksteady •
Soul

Cultural origins

Late 1960s Jamaica,
especially Kingston

Typical instruments

Bass - Drums -
Guitar - Organ - Brass instrument
- Melodica

Mainstream popularity

Early 1970s onward, varied

Derivative forms

Dancehall - Dub -
Hip hop

Subgenres

Roots reggae •
Lovers
rock • Reggae en
Español
(complete
list)

Fusion genres

Reggaeton • Reggae
fusion • Seggae • 2 Tone • Samba
reggae

Regional scenes

Africa - Australia - Japan - New Zealand -
Nigeria - Panama - Philippines - Poland

Other topics

Music of Jamaica
- List of
reggae musicians

Skank guitar rhythm often
considered "'the' reggae beat"[1] Play
straight (help·info) or Play
shuffle (help·info).

Reggae is a music
genre first developed in Jamaica in the late 1960s. While
sometimes used in a broader sense to refer to most types of Jamaican music, the
term reggae more properly denotes a particular music style that
originated following on the development of ska and rocksteady.

Reggae is based on a rhythmic style characterized by accents on the off-beat, known as the
skank. Reggae is
normally slower than both ska and rocksteady.[2]
Reggae usually accents the second and fourth beat in each bar, with the rhythm guitar
also either emphasising the third beat or holding the chord on the second beat
until the fourth is played. It is mainly this "third beat", its speed and the
use of complex bass lines that differentiated reggae from rocksteady, although
later styles incorporated these innovations separately.

Contents

1 Etymology

2 Precursors

3 History

4 Musical
characteristics

4.1 Drums and other
percussion

4.2 Bass

4.3 Guitars

4.4 Keyboards

4.5 Horns

4.6 Vocals

4.6.1 Lyrical
themes

4.6.2 Criticism of
dancehall and ragga lyrics

5 Subgenres

5.1 Early
reggae

5.2 Roots
reggae

5.3 Dub

5.4 Rockers

5.5 Lovers
rock

5.6 Newer styles and
spin-offs

5.6.1 Hip hop and
rap

5.6.2 Dancehall

5.6.3 Raggamuffin

5.6.4 Reggaeton

5.6.5 Reggae
fusion

6 Reggae outside of
Jamaica

6.1 Americas

6.2 Europe

6.3 Africa

6.4 Asia and the
Pacific

6.5 Australasia

7 Footnotes

8 Bibliography

9 See also

10 External
links

[edit]
Etymology

The 1967 edition of the Dictionary of Jamaican English
lists reggae as "a recently estab. sp. for rege", as in
rege-rege, a word that can mean either "rags, ragged clothing" or "a
quarrel, a row".[3]
Reggae as a musical term first appeared in print with the 1968 rocksteady
hit "Do the Reggay" by
The Maytals, but
it was already being used in Kingston, Jamaica as the name of a slower dance and
style of rocksteady.[4]
Reggae artist Derrick
Morgan stated:

We didn't like the name rock steady, so I tried a different version of "Fat
Man". It changed the beat again, it used the organ to creep. Bunny Lee, the producer,
liked that. He created the sound with the organ and the rhythm guitar. It
sounded like 'reggae, reggae' and that name just took off. Bunny Lee started
using the world [sic] and soon all the musicians were saying 'reggae, reggae,
reggae'.[4]

Reggae historian Steve
Barrow credits Clancy
Eccles with altering the Jamaican patois word
streggae (loose woman) into reggae.[4]
However, Toots Hibbert
said:

There's a word we used to use in Jamaica called 'streggae'. If a girl is
walking and the guys look at her and say 'Man, she's streggae' it means she
don't dress well, she look raggedy. The girls would say that about the men
too. This one morning me and my two friends were playing and I said, 'OK man,
let's do the reggay.' It was just something that came out of my mouth. So we
just start singing 'Do the reggay, do the reggay' and created a beat. People
tell me later that we had given the sound its name. Before that people had
called it blue-beat and all kind of other things. Now it's in the Guinness
World of Records.[5]

Bob Marley is said to
have claimed that the word reggae came from a Spanish term for "the
king's music".[6]
The liner notes of To the King, a compilation of Christian gospel reggae,
suggest that the word reggae was derived from the Latin regi
meaning "to the king".

[edit]
Precursors

Music of
Jamaica

Kumina - Niyabinghi - Mento - Ska - Rocksteady - Reggae - Sound
systems - Lovers
rock - Dub - Dancehall - Dub poetry - Toasting
- Raggamuffin
- Roots reggae -
Reggae
fusion

Anglophone
Caribbean music

Anguilla - Antigua
and Barbuda - Bahamas - Barbados - Bermuda - Caymans
- Grenada - Jamaica - Montserrat -
St.
Kitts and Nevis - St.
Vincent and the Grenadines - Trinidad
and Tobago - Turks
and Caicos - Virgin
Islands

Other
Caribbean music

Aruba
and the Dutch Antilles - Cuba - Dominica - Dominican
Republic - Haiti - Hawaii -
Martinique
and Guadeloupe - Puerto Rico -
St. Lucia -
United
States - United
Kingdom

Although strongly influenced by traditional African, American jazz and old-time rhythm and blues,
reggae owes its direct origins to the progressive development of ska and rocksteady in 1960s Jamaica.
One of the main individuals who progressed this genre was Count Ossie.[7][8]

Ska arose in the studios of Jamaica around 1959; it developed from the
earlier mento genre.[4]
Ska is characterized by a walking bass line,
accentuated guitar or piano rhythms on the offbeat, and sometimes jazz-like
horn riffs. In addition to being massively popular with the Jamaican rude boy subculture, it had
gained a large following among Mods in Britain by
1964.

Rude boys began deliberately playing their ska records at half speed,
preferring to dance slower as part of their tough image.[4]
By the mid-1960s, many musicians had begun playing the tempo of ska slower,
while emphasizing the walking bass and offbeats. The slower sound was named
rocksteady, after a single by Alton Ellis. This phase of
Jamaican music lasted only until 1968, when musicians began to speed up the
tempo of the music again, and added yet more effects.[9]
This led to the creation of reggae.

[edit]
History

Reggae developed from ska, mento and R&B music in the 1960s. The shift
from rocksteady to reggae was illustrated by the organ shuffle, which was pioneered
by Bunny Lee and was
featured in the transitional singles "Say What You're Saying" (1967) by Clancy Eccles, and "People
Funny Boy" (1968) by Lee "Scratch"
Perry. The Pioneers' 1967
track "Long Shot Bus' Me Bet" has been identified as the earliest recorded
example of the new rhythm sound that became known as reggae.[10]

Early 1968 was when the first genuine reggae records were released: "Nanny
Goat" by Larry Marshall
and "No More Heartaches" by The Beltones. American artist Johnny Nash's 1968 hit "Hold
Me Tight" has been credited with first putting reggae in the American listener
charts.[11]
Around that time, reggae influences were starting to surface in rock music. An
example of a rock song featuring reggae rhythm is 1968's "Ob-La-Di , Ob-La-Da."
by The Beatles.[12]

Bob Marley in
1980.

The
Wailers, a band started by Bob Marley, Peter Tosh and Bunny Wailer in 1963, are
perhaps the most recognised band that made the transition through all three
stages of early Jamaican popular music: ska, rocksteady and reggae. Other
significant reggae pioneers include Prince Buster, Desmond Dekker and Jackie Mittoo.

Notable Jamaican producers who were influential in the development of ska
into rocksteady and reggae include: Coxsone Dodd, Lee "Scratch"
Perry, Leslie Kong,
Duke Reid, Joe Gibbs
and King Tubby. Chris Blackwell, who
founded Island Records
in Jamaica in 1960, relocated to England in 1962, where he continued to promote
Jamaican music. He formed a partnership with Trojan Records, founded
by Lee Gopthal in 1968. Trojan released recordings by reggae artists in the UK
until 1974, when Saga bought the label.

The 1972 film The Harder They
Come, starring Jimmy
Cliff, generated considerable interest and popularity for reggae in the
United States, and Eric
Clapton's 1974 cover of the Bob Marley song "I Shot the Sheriff"
helped bring reggae into the mainstream.[4]
By the mid 1970s, reggae was getting radio play in the UK on John Peel's radio show, and
Peel continued to play reggae on his show throughout his career. What is called
the "Golden Age of Reggae" corresponds roughly to the heyday of roots reggae.

In the second half of the 1970s, the UK punk rock scene was starting
to form, and reggae was a notable influence. Some punk DJs played reggae songs
during their sets and some punk bands incorporated reggae influences into their
music. At the same time, reggae began to enjoy a revival in the UK that
continued into the 1980s, exemplified by groups like Steel Pulse, Aswad,
UB40, and Musical Youth. Other
reggae artists who enjoyed international appeal in the early 1980s include Third World, Black Uhuru and Sugar Minott. The Grammy
Awards introduced the Best
Reggae Album category in 1985.

[edit]
Musical
characteristics

Reggae is either played in 4/4 time or swing
time, because the symmetrical rhythmic pattern does not lend itself to other
time signatures such as 3/4 time. Harmonically, the music is often very simple,
and sometimes a whole song will have no more than one or two chords. These simple
repetitive chord structures add to reggae's sometimes hypnotic effects.

[edit]
Drums and other
percussion

A standard drum kit is generally used in reggae, but the snare drum is often tuned
very high to give it a timbales-type sound. Some
reggae drummers use an additional timbale or high-tuned snare to get this sound.
Cross stick technique on the
snare drum is commonly used, and tom-tom drums are often
incorporated into the drumbeat itself.

Robbie Shakespeare

Reggae drumbeats fall into three main
categories: One drop,
Rockers and Steppers. With the One drop, the emphasis is
entirely on the third beat of the bar (usually on the snare, or as a rim shot
combined with bass drum). Beat one is completely empty, which is unusual in
popular music. There is some controversy about whether reggae should be counted
so that this beat falls on three, or whether it should be counted half as fast,
so it falls on two and four. Leroy "Horsemouth" Wallace calls the beat the
"two-four combination".[citation
needed] Many credit Carlton Barrett of The
Wailers as the creator of this style.[citation
needed] An example played by Barrett can be heard in the Bob Marley and
the Wailers song "One Drop". Barrett often used an unusual triplet cross-rhythm
on the hi-hat, which can be
heard on many recordings by Bob Marley and the Wailers, such as "Running Away"
on the Kaya album.

Sly Dunbar

An emphasis on beat three is in all reggae drumbeats, but with the
Rockers beat, the emphasis is also on beat one (usually on bass drum).
This beat was pioneered by Sly and Robbie, who later
helped create the "Rub-a-Dub" sound that greatly influenced dancehall. The
prototypical example of the style is found in Sly Dunbar's drumming on
"Right Time" by the Mighty Diamonds. The Rockers beat is not always
straightforward, and various syncopations are often
included. An example of this is the Black Uhuru song "Sponji
Reggae."

In Steppers, the bass drum plays four solid beats to the bar, giving
the beat an insistent drive. An example is "Exodus" by Bob Marley and the
Wailers. Another common name for the Steppers beat is the "four on the
floor." Burning Spear's
1975 song "Red, Gold, and Green" (with Leroy Wallace on drums) is one of the
earliest examples. The Steppers beat was adopted (at a much higher tempo)
by some 2 Tone ska revival bands of the late 1970s
and early 1980s.

An unusual characteristic of reggae drumming is that the drum fills often do
not end with a climactic cymbal. A wide range of other percussion
instrumentation is used in reggae. Bongos are often used to play
free, improvised patterns, with heavy use of African-style cross-rhythms. Cowbells, claves and shakers tend to have
more defined roles and a set pattern.

[edit]
Bass

Aston Barret

The bass guitar often
plays a very dominant role in reggae, and the drum and bass is often called the
riddim (rhythm).
Several reggae singers have released different songs recorded over the same
rhythm. The central role of the bass can be particularly heard in dub music — which gives an
even bigger role to the drum and bass line, reducing the vocals and other
instruments to peripheral roles. The bass sound in reggae is thick and heavy,
and equalized so the upper
frequencies are removed and the lower frequencies emphasized. The bass line is
often a simple two-bar riff that is centered around its
thickest and heaviest note.

[edit]
Guitars

The guitar in reggae
usually plays the chords on beats two and four, a musical figure known as skank or the 'bang'. It
has a very dampened, short and scratchy chop sound, almost like a percussion
instrument. Sometimes a double chop is used when the guitar still plays the off
beats, but also plays the following 8th beats on the up-stroke. An example is
the intro to "Stir It Up"
by The Wailers. Artist and producer Derrick Harriott says,
“What happened was the musical thing was real widespread, but only among a
certain sort of people. It was always a down-town thing, but more than just
hearing the music. The equipment was so powerful and the vibe so strong that we
feel it.” [13]

[edit]
Keyboards

Al Anderson

From the late 1960s through to the early 1980s, a piano was generally used in
reggae to double the rhythm guitar's skank, playing the chords in a staccato style to add body,
and playing occasional extra beats, runs and riffs. The piano part was widely
taken over by synthesizers during the
1980s, although synthesizers have been used in a peripheral role since the 1970s
to play incidental melodies and countermelodies. Larger bands may include either
an additional keyboardist, to cover or replace horn and melody lines, or the main
keyboardist filling these roles on two or more keyboards.

The reggae-organ shuffle is unique to reggae. Typically, a Hammond organ-style sound
is used to play chords with a choppy feel. This is known as the bubble.
There are specific drawbar settings used on a Hammond console to get the correct
sound. This may be the most difficult reggae keyboard rhythm. The 8th beats are
played with a space-left-right-left-space-left-right-left pattern, where the
spaces represent downbeats not played—that is the left-right-left falls on the
ee-and-a.

[edit]
Horns

Horn sections are frequently used in reggae, often playing introductions and
counter-melodies. Instruments included in a typical reggae horn section include
saxophone, trumpet or trombone. In more recent times, real horns are sometimes
replaced in reggae by synthesizers or recorded
samples. The horn section is often arranged around the first horn, playing a
simple melody or counter melody. The first horn is usually accompanied by the
second horn playing the same melodic phrase in unision, one octave higher. The
third horn usually plays the melody an octave and a fifth higher than the first
horn. The horns are generally played fairly softly, usually resulting in a
soothing sound. However, sometimes punchier, louder phrases are played for a
more up-tempo and aggressive sound.

[edit]
Vocals

UB40's former frontman Ali Campbell performing in
2009.

The vocals in reggae are less of a defining characteristic of the genre than
the instrumentation and rhythm, as almost any song can be performed in a reggae
style. However, it is very common for reggae to be sung in Jamaican Patois, Jamaican English, and
Iyaric dialects. Vocal harmony
parts are often used, either throughout the melody (as with bands such as the Mighty Diamonds), or as
a counterpoint to the main vocal line (as with the backing group I-Threes). The British reggae band Steel Pulse used
particularly complex backing vocals. An unusual aspect of reggae singing is that
many singers use tremolo (volume oscillation)
rather than vibrato
(pitch oscillation). Notable exponents of this technique include Dennis Brown and Horace Andy. The toasting vocal
style is unique to reggae, originating when DJs improvised along to dub
tracks, and it is generally considered to be a precursor to rap.
It differs from rap mainly in that it is generally melodic, while rap is
generally more a spoken form without melodic content.

[edit]
Lyrical themes

Reggae is noted for its tradition of social criticism in its lyrics, although
many reggae songs discuss lighter, more personal subjects, such as love and
socializing. Many early reggae bands covered Motown or Atlantic soul and funk songs. Some reggae lyrics
attempt to raise the political consciousness of the audience, such as by
criticizing materialism,
or by informing the listener about controversial subjects such as Apartheid.
Many reggae songs promote the use of cannabis (also known as
herb, ganja, or sensimilia), considered a sacrament in the
Rastafari
movement. There are many artists who utilize religious themes in their music
— whether it be discussing a specific religious topic, or simply giving praise
to God (Jah). Other common
socio-political topics in reggae songs include black nationalism, anti-racism, anti-colonialism, anti-capitalism and
criticism of political systems and "Babylon".

[edit]
Criticism of
dancehall and ragga lyrics

See also: Stop Murder
Music

Some dancehall and ragga artists have been criticised for homophobia,[14][15]
including threats of violence.[16]
Buju Banton's song "Boom
Bye-Bye" states that gays "haffi dead". Other notable dancehall artists who have
been accused of homophobia include Elephant Man, Bounty Killer and Beenie Man. The controversy
surrounding anti-gay lyrics has led to the cancellation of UK tours by Beenie
Man and Sizzla. Toronto, Canada has also seen the cancellation of concerts due
to artists such as Elephant Man and Sizzla refusing to conform to similar
censorship pressures.[17][18]

After lobbying from the Stop Murder Music
coalition, the dancehall music industry agreed in 2005 to stop releasing songs
that promote hatred and violence against gay people.[19][20]
In June 2007, Beenie Man, Sizzla and Capleton signed up to the
Reggae Compassionate Act, in a deal brokered with top dancehall promoters and
Stop Murder Music activists. They renounced homophobia and agreed to "not make
statements or perform songs that incite hatred or violence against anyone from
any community". Five artists targeted by the anti-homophobia campaign did not
sign up to the act, including Elephant Man, TOK, Bounty Killa, Vybz Kartel and Buju
Banton.[21]

[edit]
Subgenres

Peter Tosh performing with
his band in 1978.

Main article: Reggae genres

[edit]
Early reggae

Early reggae, sometimes dubbed "skinhead reggae" due to its popularity among
the working class subculture in the UK, started in the late 1960s, as the
influence of funk music from American labels such as Stax began to permeate the
playing of studio musicians. The characteristic defining early reggae from rock
steady is the "bubbling" organ, a percussive style of playing that brought to
closer light the eighth-note subdivision within the groove. The guitar "skanks"
on the second and fourth note of the bar were more frequently doubled up in
recording studios using electronic tape echo effects, thus complementing the
double-time feel of the organ bubble. Overall more emphasis was on the groove of
the music; the growing trend of recording a "version" on the B-side of a single
produced countless instrumentals led by a horn or organ.

Major skinhead reggae artists include John Holt, Toots & the
Maytals, The Pioneers and Symarip. Cover versions of Motown, Stax and Atlantic Records soul songs
were common in skinhead reggae, reflecting the popularity of soul music with
skinheads and Mods.

[edit]
Roots reggae

Main article: Roots reggae

Roots reggae is a spiritual type of music whose lyrics are predominantly in
praise of Jah (God). Recurrent
lyrical themes include poverty and resistance to
government and racial oppression. Many of Bob Marley's and Peter Tosh's songs
can be called roots reggae. The creative pinnacle of roots reggae was in the
late 1970s[citation
needed] with singers such as Burning Spear, Gregory Isaacs, Freddie McGregor, Johnny Clarke, Horace Andy, Ijahman Levi, Barrington Levy, Big Youth, and Linval Thompson, and
bands like Culture, Israel Vibration, the Meditations, and Misty in Roots, teaming
up with various studio producers including Lee 'Scratch'
Perry and Coxsone
Dodd. Musically, on the song "Roots, Rock, Reggae" Marley devised a new
style of "off beat" music where a bar of six beats is played, with the guitar
skanking on the fourth and sixth beat. Although entirely separate from the beats
of ska, rock steady, reggae, skank, flyers, rockers and all later styles, this
unique beat seems to have been so closely associated with Marley that few others
adopted it.

[edit]
Dub

Lee "Scratch"
Perry

Main article: Dub music

Dub is a genre of reggae that was pioneered in the early days by studio
producers Lee 'Scratch'
Perry and King Tubby.
It involves extensive remixing of recorded material, and particular emphasis is
placed on the drum and bass line. The techniques used resulted in an even more
visceral feel described by King Tubby as sounding "jus’ like a volcano in yuh
head." Augustus Pablo
and Mikey Dread were two
of the early notable proponents of this music style, which continues today.

[edit]
Rockers

The rockers style was created in the mid-1970s by Sly
& Robbie. Rockers is described as a flowing, mechanical, and aggressive
style of playing reggae.[22]
One article calls the rockers era the "Golden Age of Reggae".[23]

[edit]
Lovers rock

Main article: Lovers rock

The lovers rock subgenre originated in South London in the mid-1970s. The
lyrics are usually about love. It is similar to rhythm and blues.
Notable lovers rock artists include: Gregory Isaacs, Freddy McGregor, Dennis Brown, Maxi Priest and Beres Hammond.

[edit]
Newer styles and
spin-offs

[edit]
Hip hop and rap

Further information: Deejaying, Hip hop music and Rapping

Toasting is a style of chanting or talking over the record that was first
used by 1960s Jamaican deejays such as U-Roy and Dennis Alcapone. This
style greatly influenced Jamaican DJ Kool
Herc, who used the style in New York City in the late
1970s to pioneer the hip hop and rap genres. Mixing techniques employed in dub music have also influenced
hip hop.

[edit]
Dancehall

Main article: Dancehall

The dancehall genre was developed around 1980, with exponents such as Yellowman, Super Cat and Shabba Ranks. The style was
characterized by a deejay singing and rapping or toasting over raw and
fast rhythms. Ragga
(also known as raggamuffin) and reggae fusion, are
subgenres of dancehall where the instrumentation primarily consists of electronic music and sampling. Notable
ragga originators include Shinehead and Buju Banton. In February
2009, Dancehall with lyrical content "deemed explicitly sexual and violent" was
banned from the airwaves by the Broadcasting Commission of Jamaica.[24][25]

[edit]
Raggamuffin

Main article: Ragga

Raggamuffin, usually abbreviated as ragga, is a sub-genre of reggae that is
closely related to dancehall and dub. The
term raggamuffin is an intentional misspelling of ragamuffin, and the term
raggamuffin music describes the music of Jamaica's "ghetto youths". The
instrumentation primarily consists of electronic music. Sampling often serves a
prominent role as well. As ragga matured, an increasing number of dancehall
artists began to appropriate stylistic elements of hip hop music, while ragga
music, in turn, influenced more and more hip hop artists. Ragga is now mainly
used as a synonym for dancehall reggae or for describing dancehall with a deejay chatting rather than
deejaying or singing on top of the riddim.

[edit]
Reggaeton

Main article: Reggaeton

Reggaeton is a form of urban music that
first became popular with Latin American youths in
the early 1990s. Reggaeton's predecessor originated in Panama as reggae en
español. After the music's gradual exposure in Puerto Rico, it eventually
evolved into reggaeton.[26]
It blends West-Indian reggae
and dancehall with Latin
American genres such as bomba,
plena, salsa, merengue, Latin pop, cumbia and bachata, as well as hip
hop, contemporary
R&B and electronica. Modern
reggaeton beats follow the structure of the Dem Bow Riddim, a beat created by
Jamaican producers Steely & Clevie in
the late 80s and early 90s.

[edit]
Reggae fusion

Main article: Reggae fusion

Reggae fusion is a mixture of reggae or dancehall with elements of
other genres, such as hip-hop, R&B, jazz, rock, drum and bass, punk or
polka.[27]
Although artists have been mixing reggae with other genres from as early as the
early 1970s, it was not until the late 1990s when the term was coined.

[edit]
Reggae outside of
Jamaica

Reggae has spread to many countries across the world, often incorporating
local instruments and fusing with other genres.

[edit]
Americas

Reggae en
Español spread from mainland South American Caribbean from Venezuela and Guyana to the rest of South
America. It does not have any specific characteristics other than being sung in
Spanish, usually by artists of Latin American origin. Samba reggae originated in
Brazil as a blend of Samba with Jamaican reggae.

[edit]
Europe

Caribbean
music in the United Kingdom, including reggae, has been popular since the
late 1960s, and has evolved into several subgenres and fusions. Since the early
1990s, several Italian reggae bands have emerged, including Sud Sound System, Pitura Freska, Almamegretta and B.R. Stylers, and European
singers getting their inspiration directly from Jamaica like Alborosie (Italy), Charly B (France), Gentleman (Germany). In
Sweden, Uppsala
Reggae Festival attracts attendees from across Northern Europe, and features
Swedish reggae bands such as Rootvälta and Svenska
Akademien. The first homegrown Polish reggae bands
started in the 1980s. German reggae artist Gentleman rose to
popularity with his album Confidence in 2004.
Summerjam, Europe's biggest
reggae festival, takes place in Cologne, Germany. Rototom Sunsplash,
which used to take place in Italy, Osoppo, until 2009, is now held
in Benicassim, Spain. This big festival has
gathers every year up to 150,000 visitors.

[edit]
Africa

Reggae in Africa was much boosted by the visit of Bob Marley to Zimbabwe on
Independence Day 18 April 1980. Nigerian reggae had
developed in the 1970s. In South Africa, reggae music has played a unifying role
amongst cultural groups in Cape
Town. During the years of Apartheid, the music bonded
people from all demographic groups. Lucky Dube recorded 25
albums, fusing reggae with Mbaqanga. The Marcus Garvey
Rasta camp in Phillipi is regarded by many to be the reggae and Rastafarian center of
Cape Town. Reggae bands play regularly at community centres such as the Zolani
center in Nyanga.

In Ethiopia, Dub Collosus emerged in 2008, and has received wide acclaim.[28][29]
In Mali, Askia Modibo fuses reggae with Malian music, and is described by Last
FM as "the most significant African reggae musician to emerge internationally
within the past five years."[30]
In Malawi, Black
Missionaries produced five albums. In Ivory Coast, Tiken Jah Fakoly fuses
reggae with traditional music. Alpha Blondy from Ivory
Coast sings reggae with religious lyrics.

[edit]
Asia and the Pacific

In the Philippines, several bands and sound systems play reggae and dancehall
music in a style faithful to its expression in Jamaica. Their music is called Pinoy reggae. Japanese reggae emerged
in the early 1980s. Reggae is becoming more prevalent in Thailand as well. Aside
from the reggae music and Rastafarian influences seen ever more on Thailand's
islands and beaches, a true reggae sub-culture is taking root in Thailand's
cities and towns. Many Thai artists, such as Job 2 Do, keep the tradition of
reggae music and ideals alive in Thailand. By the end of the 1980s, the local
music scene in Hawaii was dominated by Jawaiian music,
a local form of Reggae.

[edit]
Australasia

Reggae in
Australia originated in the 1980s. New Zealand reggae
has seen many bands emerging since 2000, often involving fusion with
electronica. Desert
Reggae Is a developing contemporary style possible originating in Central
Australia. Lyrics are often sung in Australian Aboriginal languages.[31]

[edit]
Footnotes

^ Johnston,
Richard (2004). How to Play Rhythm Guitar, p.72. ISBN
0879308117.

^ http://www.allaboutjazz.com/php/article.php?id=34239

^ 1967
Dictionary of Jamaican English

^ a
b
c
d
e
f
History of Jamaican Music 1953–1973

^ Sturges, Fiona
(2004) "Frederick "Toots" Hibbert: The reggae king of Kingston",
The
Independent, 4 June 2004, retrieved 11 December 2009; cf. many similar
statements by Hibbert in recent years. In earlier interviews, Hibbert used to
claim the derivation was from English 'regular', in reference to the
beat.

^ Catch a
Fire: The Life of Bob Marley, Timothy White, p. 16

^ Cut 'N' Mix: Culture, Identity, and Caribbean Music By Dick
Hebdige

^ Reggae routes: the story of Jamaican music By Kevin O'Brien
Chang, Wayne Chen

^
Barrow, Steve & Dalton, Peter (1997) Reggae: The Rough Guide, Rough
Guides, ISBN
1-85828-247-0, p. 83

^ "Shocks Of Mighty: An Upsetting Biography"

^ "A brief summary of Jamaican music" - excerpted from A
History of Popular Music by Piero Scaruffi (2002)

^ Reggae
[Relation to Rock & Roll] Richie Unterberger All Music Guide

^ Bradley,
Lloyd. This Is Reggae Music:The Story Of Jamaica's Music. New
York:Grove Press, 2001

^ LOGOonline.com: NewNowNext Blog: Reggae Stars Sign On To Cut Out
Homophobic Lyrics

^ Reggae Stars Renounce Homophobia, Condemn Anti-gay
Violence

^ "The Most Homophobic Place on Earth?". Time.
2006-04-12. http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1182991,00.html.

^ "Toronto - Reggae's Elephant Man nixed from Toronto
concert"

^ "Sizzla Refuses To ‘Bow’ – Toronto Show Cancelled"

^ Flick, Larry,
"Gay vs. reggae: the reggae music industry makes changes in
response to gay activists' protesting violently homophobic lyrics. The artists
have no comment", The Advocate, April 12, 2005

^ "Sizzl - Reggae Industry to Ban Homophobia"

^ "Reggae stars renounce homophobia - Beenie Man, Sizzla and
Capleton sign deal"

^ Dick Hebdige, Cut 'n' Mix: Culture, Identity and Caribbean Music
p.67

^ Reggae-Shack,
Rockers - The Golden Age Of Reggae

^
Wright, André (2009) "Slack song ban - Kartel's 'Rampin' Shop' among explicit lyrics
outlawed", Jamaica Gleaner,
February 7, 2009, retrieved 2010-01-31

^
Richards, Peter (2009) "JAMAICA:
Women Cheer Ban on Sexually Degrading Song Lyrics", Inter Press Service,
February 11, 2009, retrieved 2010-01-31

^ AskMen.com - "5 Things You Didn't Know About Reggaeton"

^
Big D (2008-05-08). "Reggae
Fusion". Reggae-Reviews. http://www.reggae-reviews.com/fusion.html. Retrieved 2008-06-07.

^ Pitchfork media review of Ethiopia's Dub Collosus

^ The Guardian's review of Dub Collosus

^ Askia Modibo at Last FM

^ Wilurarra
Creative 2010.Wilurarra Creative Music Development

[edit]
Bibliography

Jérémie Kroubo Dagnini (2008). Les origines du reggae: retour aux
sources. Mento, ska, rocksteady, early reggae, L'Harmattan, coll. Univers
musical. ISBN
978-2-296-06252-8 (French)

Manuel, Peter, with Kenneth Bilby and Michael
Largey (2006). Caribbean Currents: Caribbean Music from Rumba to Reggae
(2nd edition). Temple University Press, 2006. Philadelphia, PA: Temple
University Press. ISBN 1-59213-463-7.

O'Brien Chang, Kevin & Chen, Wayne (1998).
Reggae Routes: The Story of Jamaican Music. Ian Randle Publishers. ISBN 976-8100-67-2.

Larkin, Colin (ed.) (1998). The Virgin
Encyclopedia of Reggae. Virgin. ISBN 0-7535-0242-9.

Barrow, Steve &
Dalton, Peter (2004 for the 3rd edition). The Rough Guide to Reggae.
Rough Guides. ISBN 1-84353-329-4.

Morrow, Chris (1999). Stir It Up: Reggae
Cover Art. Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0-500-28154-8.

Jahn, Brian & Weber, Tom (1998). Reggae
Island: Jamaican Music in the Digital Age. Da Capo Press. ISBN 0-306-80853-6.

Hurford, Ray (ed.) (1987). More Axe.
Erikoispaino Oy. ISBN 951-99841-4-3.

Potash, Chris (ed.) (1997). Reggae, Rasta,
Revolution: Jamaican Music from Ska to Dub. Schirmer Books. ISBN 0-8256-7212-0.

Baek, Henrik & Hedegard, Hans (1999).
Dancehall Explosion, Reggae Music Into the Next Millennium. Samler
Borsen Publishing, Denmark. ISBN 87-981684-3-6.

Katz, David (2000).
People Funny Boy: The Genius of Lee Scratch Perry. Payback Press, UK.
ISBN 0-86241-854-2.

Lesser, Beth (2002). King Jammy's. ECW
Press. ISBN 1-55022-525-1.

Stolzoff, Norman C. (2000). Wake The Town
And Tell The People. Duke University
Press, USA. ISBN 0-8223-2514-4.

Davis, Stephen & Simon, Peter (1979).
Reggae Bloodlines: In Search of the Music and Culture of Jamaica. Da
Capo Press. ISBN 0-306-80496-4.

Katz, David (2003). Solid Foundation - An
Oral history of Reggae. Bloomsburry, UK. ISBN 1-58234-143-5.

de Koningh, Michael
& Cane-Honeysett,
Laurence (2003). Young Gifted and Black - The Story of Trojan
Records. Sanctuary Publishing, UK. ISBN 1-86074-464-8.

de Koningh, Michael & Griffiths, Marc
(2003). Tighten Up - The History of Reggae in the UK. Sanctuary
Publishing, UK. ISBN 1-86074-559-8.

Bradley, Lloyd (2001).
Bass Culture. When Reggae Was King. Penguin Books Ltd, UK. ISBN 0-14-023763-1.

Bradley, Lloyd (2000).
This Is Reggae Music. The Story of Jamica's Music. Penguin Books Ltd,
UK. ISBN 0-802-3828-4.

Chang, Jeff
(2005). Can't Stop Won't Stop.. St. Martin's Press, 2005. ISBN 0-312-30143-X.

[edit]
See also

Music
portal

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Reggae

Caribbean
music in the United Kingdom

Grammy
Award for Best Reggae Album

List of
reggae festivals

List of
reggae musicians

[edit]
External links

Reggae Music at the Open Directory Project

v ·
d ·
eReggae

Genres

Roots reggae -
Dub music - Dub poetry - Lovers rock - Dancehall - Reggaeton - Reggae en
Español - Reggae fusion
- Ragga - Ragga jungle -
Samba
reggae

Characteristics

Walking bass -
Hammond
organ - Reverb - Delay -
Deejay - Toasting - Singjay

Related topics

Music of
Jamaica - Caribbean
Music - Caribbean
music in the United Kingdom - Reggae in
Australia - Reggae
Grammy winners 1985-present - Rastafari
- Rude boy - Skinhead - Suedehead
- Dance Hall
(venue) - Dubplate - Sound
system (Jamaican) - Sound system
(DJ) - Riddim
- Jamaican
English - Jamaican
Patois - Studio
One - Trojan
Records - Island
Records - Blue Beat
- Reggae
musicians - Dub
artists - Jamaican
record producers - Reggae
festivals

Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reggae"

Categories: Reggae | Jamaican
music

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