Blues

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This article is about the music genre. For other uses, see Blues
(disambiguation).

Blues

Stylistic origins

African American folk
music
Work
song
Spirituals

Cultural origins

Late 19th century, southern United States

Typical instruments

Guitar ·
Piano ·
Harmonica ·
Double
bass · Drums ·
Saxophone ·
Vocals ·
Trumpet ·
Trombone

Mainstream popularity

Widespread since the early 20th century

Derivative forms

Bluegrass ·
Jazz ·
R&B ·
Rock and
roll · Rock music

Subgenres

Boogie-woogie ·
Classic female
blues · Country
blues · Delta
blues · Electric
blues · Fife and drum
blues · Jump
blues · Piano
blues
(complete
list)

Fusion genres

Blues-rock ·
Jazz
blues · Punk
blues · Soul blues

Regional scenes

British
blues · Canadian
blues · Chicago
blues · Detroit
blues · East Coast
blues · Kansas City
blues · Louisiana
blues · Memphis
blues · New Orleans
blues · Piedmont
blues · St. Louis
blues · Swamp
blues · Texas
blues · West Coast
blues

Other topics

Blues
genres · Blues
musicians · Blues
scale · Jug
band · Origins

Blues is a music
genre that originated in African-American
communities of primarily the Deep South of the United
States at the end of the 19th century from spirituals, work songs,
field
hollers, shouts and chants, and rhymed simple
narrative ballads.[1]
The blues form, ubiquitous in jazz, rhythm and blues, and
rock and roll, is
characterized by specific chord progressions, of which the twelve-bar blues chord
progression is the most common. The blue notes that, for
expressive purposes are sung or played flattened or gradually bent (minor 3rd to
major 3rd) in relation to the pitch of the major scale, are also an
important part of the sound.

John Lee
Hooker

The blues genre is based on the blues form but possesses other
characteristics such as specific lyrics, bass lines and instruments. Blues can
be subdivided into several subgenres ranging
from country to urban blues
that were more or less popular during different periods of the 20th century.
Best known are the Delta, Piedmont, Jump and
Chicago blues styles.
World War II marked the
transition from acoustic to electric blues and the
progressive opening of blues music to a wider audience. In the 1960s and 1970s,
a hybrid form called blues-rock evolved.

The term "the blues" refers to the "blue devils", meaning melancholy and
sadness; an early use of the term in this sense is found in George
Colman's one-act farce Blue Devils (1798).[2]
Though the use of the phrase in African-American
music may be older, it has been attested to since 1912, when Hart Wand's "Dallas Blues" became the
first copyrighted blues composition.[3][4]
In lyrics the phrase is often used to describe a depressed mood.[5]

Contents

1 Form

2 Lyrics

3 History

3.1 Origins

3.2 Pre-war
blues

3.3 1950s

3.4 1960s and
1970s

3.5 1980s to the
2000s

4 Musical
impact

5 In popular
culture

6 See also

7 Notes

8 References

9 Further
reading

10 External
links

[edit]
Form

During the first decades of the 20th century, blues music was not clearly
defined in terms of a chord progression.[6]
With the popularity of early performers, such as Bessie Smith, use of the twelve-bar blues spread
across the music industry during the 1920s and 30s.[7]
Other chord progressions, such as 8-bar forms, are still
considered blues; examples include "How Long
Blues", "Trouble in Mind",
and Big Bill
Broonzy's "Key to
the Highway". There are also 16-bar blues, as in Ray Charles's instrumental
"Sweet 16 Bars" and in Herbie Hancock's "Watermelon
Man". Idiosyncratic numbers of bars are also encountered occasionally, as
with the 9-bar progression in "Sitting on Top
of the World" by Howlin Wolf.

Chords played over a twelve-bar scheme:

Chords for a blues in C:

I

I or IV

I

I7

IV

IV

I

I7

V

V or IV

I

I or V

C

C or F

C

C7

F

F

C

C7

G

G or F

C

C or
G

The basic twelve-bar lyric framework of a blues composition is reflected by a
standard harmonic progression of twelve bars in a 4/4 time signature. The
blues chords associated to a twelve-bar blues are
typically a set of three different chords played over a twelve-bar scheme. They
are labeled by Roman numbers referring to
the degrees of the
progression. For instance, for a blues in the key of C, C is the tonic chord (I) and F is the
subdominant (IV). The
last chord is the dominant (V) turnaround, marking
the transition to the beginning of the next progression. The lyrics generally
end on the last beat of the tenth bar or the first beat of the eleventh bar, and
the final two bars are given to the instrumentalist as a break; the harmony of
this two-bar break, the turnaround, can be extremely complex, sometimes
consisting of single notes that defy analysis in terms of chords.

Much of the time, some or all of these chords are played in the harmonic seventh (7th)
form. The use of the harmonic seventh interval is characteristic of blues and is
popularly called the "blues seven".[8]
Blues seven chords add to the harmonic chord a note with a frequency in a 7:4
ratio to the fundamental note. At a 7:4 ratio, it is not close to any interval
on the conventional Western diatonic scale.[9]
For convenience or by necessity it is often approximated by a minor seventh interval or
a dominant seventh
chord.

A minor pentatonic scale; play
(help·info)

In melody, blues is
distinguished by the use of the flattened third,
fifth and seventh of the associated
major scale.[10]
These specialized notes are called the blue or bent
notes. These scale tones may replace the natural scale tones, or they
may be added to the scale, as in the case of the minor blues scale, in which the
flattened third replaces the natural third, the flattened seventh replaces the
natural seventh and the flattened fifth is added between the natural fourth and
natural fifth. While the twelve-bar harmonic progression had been intermittently
used for centuries, the revolutionary aspect of blues was the frequent use of
the flattened third, flattened seventh, and even flattened fifth in the melody,
together with crushing—playing directly adjacent notes at the same time
(i.e., diminished second)—and sliding, similar to using grace
notes.[11]
The blue notes allow for key moments of expression during the cadences,
melodies, and embellishments of the blues.

Detroit
blues

Example of blues-rock shuffle

G7
Shuffle

Example of Chicago-blues shuffle

Problems listening to these files? See media
help.

Blues shuffles or walking bass reinforce the
trance-like rhythm and call-and-response, and they form a repetitive effect
called a groove.
Characteristic of the blues since its Afro-American origins, the shuffles played
a central role in swing
music.[12]
The simplest shuffles, which were the clearest signature of the R&B wave
that started in the mid 1940s,[13]
were a three-note riff on the bass strings of the
guitar. When this riff was played over the bass and the drums, the groove "feel"
was created. Shuffle rhythm is often vocalized as "dow, da dow, da
dow, da" or "dump, da dump, da dump, da":[14]
it consists of uneven, or "swung," eighth notes. On a guitar this may be played
as a simple steady bass or it may add to that stepwise quarter note motion from
the fifth to the sixth of the chord and back. An example is provided by the
following guitar tablature
for the first four bars of a blues progression in E:[15][16]

Blues shuffle or boogie in E major ( Play
(help·info)).

E7 A7 E7 E7
E |----------------|----------------|----------------|----------------|
B |----------------|----------------|----------------|----------------|
G |----------------|----------------|----------------|----------------|
D |----------------|2—2-4—2-5—2-4—2-|----------------|----------------|
A |2—2-4-2-5-2-4—2-|0—0-0—0-0—0-0—2-|2—2-4—2-5—2-4—2-|2—2-4—2-5—2-4—2-|
E |0—0-0—0-0—0-0—2-|----------------|0—0-0—0-0—0-0—2-|0—0-0—0-0—0-0—2-|

[edit]
Lyrics

Robert
Johnson, an influential Delta blues
musician

The lyrics of early traditional blues
verses probably often consisted of a single line repeated four times; it was
only in the first decades of the 20th century that the most common current
structure became standard: the so-called AAB pattern, consisting of a line sung
over the four first bars, its repetition over the next four, and then a longer
concluding line over the last bars.[17]
Two of the first published blues songs, "Dallas Blues" (1912) and
"St. Louis Blues"
(1914), were 12-bar blues featuring the AAB structure. W. C. Handy wrote that he
adopted this convention to avoid the monotony of lines repeated three times.[18]
The lines are often sung following a pattern closer to a rhythmic
talk than to a melody. Early blues frequently took the form of a loose
narrative. The singer voiced his or her "personal woes in a world of harsh
reality: a lost love, the cruelty of police officers, oppression at the hands of
white folk, [and] hard times."[19]
This melancholy has led to the suggestion of an Igbo origin for blues because
of the reputation the Igbo had throughout
plantations in the Americas for their melancholic music and outlook to life when
they were enslaved.[20][21]

The lyrics often relate troubles experienced within African American society.
For instance Blind
Lemon Jefferson's "Rising High Water Blues" (1927) tells about the Great
Mississippi Flood of 1927:

"Backwater rising, Southern peoples can't make no time

I said, backwater rising, Southern peoples can't make no time

And I can't get no hearing from that Memphis girl of mine."

However, although the blues gained an association with misery and oppression,
the lyrics could also be humorous and raunchy as well:[22]

"Rebecca, Rebecca, get your big legs off of me,

Rebecca, Rebecca, get your big legs off of me,

It may be sending you baby, but it's worrying the hell out of me."

From Big Joe
Turner's "Rebecca", a compilation of traditional
blues lyrics

Hokum blues celebrated both
comedic lyrical content and a boisterous, farcical performance style.[23]
Tampa Red's classic "Tight
Like That" (1928) is a sly wordplay with the double meaning of being "tight"
with someone coupled with a more salacious physical familiarity. Lyrical content
of music became slightly simpler in post war-blues which focused almost
exclusively on relationship woes or sexual worries. Many lyrical themes that
frequently appeared in pre-war blues such as economic depression, farming,
devils, gambling, magic, floods and dry periods were less common in post-war
blues.[24]

Author Ed Morales has claimed that Yoruba mythology played
a part in early blues, citing Robert
Johnson's "Cross
Road Blues" as a "thinly veiled reference to Eleggua, the orisha in charge of the
crossroads".[25]
However, the Christian influence was far more obvious.[26]
Many seminal blues artists such as Charley Patton or Skip James had several
religious songs or spirituals in their repertoires.[27]
Reverend Gary
Davis[28]
and Blind Willie
Johnson[29]
are examples of artists often categorized as blues musicians for their music,
although their lyrics clearly belong to the spirituals.

[edit]
History

"The
Memphis Blues"

The Memphis
Blues, composed by W. C. Handy in 1912.
Recorded by Victor Military
Band. First known commercial recording of Handy's first commercially
successful blues composition.

Crazy
Blues

The first commercial recording of vocal blues by an
African-American singer: Mamie Smith's
performance of Perry
Bradford's "Crazy Blues" in 1920.

Keep
your lamp trimmed and burning

Traditional spiritual performed by Texas gospel singer
Blind Willie
Johnson (vocal and guitar) and Willie
B. Harris (vocal) in 1927. This example shows the close relationship
between gospel and blues music.

Dupree
Blues

Piedmont blues,
performed in 1930 by Blind Willie
Walker

Milwaukee
Blues

Bluegrass,
performed in 1930 by Charlie Poole, a
bluesman of Irish descent

Sweet
Home Chicago

Sweet Home
Chicago, performed in 1936 by Robert
Johnson, a Delta
blues guitarist

Good
Liquor Gonna Carry Me Down

Chicago blues of the late pre-war era, the so-called Bluebird sound,
recorded by Big
Bill Broonzy.

Moanin'
At Midnight

noicon

Chicago blues of the early post-war era, recorded by Howlin' Wolf in
1951.

Mr.
P.C.

Hard Bop recorded by John Coltrane in
1960. This is an example of jazz with blues structure.

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help.

[edit]
Origins

Main article: Origins of the
blues

The first publication of blues sheet music was Hart Wand's "Dallas Blues" in 1912; W. C. Handy's "The Memphis Blues"
followed in the same year. The first recording by an African American singer was
Mamie Smith's 1920
rendition of Perry
Bradford's "Crazy Blues". But the origins of the blues date back to some
decades earlier, probably around 1890.[30]
They are very poorly documented, due in part to racial discrimination within
American society, including academic circles,[31]
and to the low literacy rate of the rural African American community at the
time.[32]
Chroniclers began to report about blues music in Southern Texas and Deep South at the dawn of the
20th century. In particular, Charles Peabody mentioned the appearance of blues
music at Clarksdale,
Mississippi and Gate Thomas reported very similar songs in southern Texas
around 1901–1902. These observations coincide more or less with the remembrance
of Jelly Roll
Morton, who declared having heard blues for the first time in New Orleans in 1902; Ma Rainey, who remembered her
first blues experience the same year in Missouri; and W.C. Handy, who first heard
the blues in Tutwiler,
Mississippi in 1903. The first extensive research in the field was performed
by Howard W. Odum, who
published a large anthology of folk songs in the counties of Lafayette,
Mississippi and Newton, Georgia
between 1905 and 1908.[33]
The first non-commercial recordings of blues music, termed "proto-blues" by Paul Oliver, were made by
Odum at the very beginning of the 20th century for research purposes. They are
now utterly lost.[34]
Other recordings that are still available were made in 1924 by Lawrence Gellert.
Later, several recordings were made by Robert W. Gordon,
who became head of the Archive of American
Folk Songs of the Library of Congress.
Gordon's successor at the Library was John Lomax. In the 1930s,
together with his son Alan, Lomax made a large
number of non-commercial blues recordings that testify to the huge variety of
proto-blues styles, such as field hollers and ring
shouts.[35]
A record of blues music as it existed before the 1920s is also given by the
recordings of artists such as Lead Belly[36]
or Henry
Thomas[37]
who both performed archaic blues music. All these sources show the existence of
many different structures distinct from the twelve-, eight-, or sixteen-bar.[38][39]

John Lomax, pioneering musicologist and folklorist

The social and economic reasons for the appearance of the blues are not fully
known.[40]
The first appearance of the blues is often dated after the Emancipation Act
of 1863,[31]
between 1870 and 1900, a period that coincides with Emancipation and, later,
the development of juke joints as places where
Blacks went to listen to music, dance, or gamble after a hard day's work.[41]
This period corresponds to the transition from slavery to sharecropping,
small-scale agricultural production, and the expansion of railroads in the
southern United States. Several scholars characterize the early 1900s
development of blues music as a move from group performances to a more
individualized style. They argue that the development of the blues is associated
with the newly acquired freedom of the enslaved people. According to Lawrence
Levine, "there was a direct relationship between the national ideological
emphasis upon the individual, the popularity of Booker T.
Washington's teachings, and the rise of the blues." Levine states that
"psychologically, socially, and economically, African-Americans were being
acculturated in a way that would have been impossible during slavery, and it is
hardly surprising that their secular music reflected this as much as their
religious music did."[42]

There are few characteristics common to all blues music, because the genre
took its shape from the idiosyncrasies of individual performances.[43]
However, there are some characteristics that were present long before the
creation of the modern blues. Call-and-response shouts were an early form of
blues-like music; they were a "functional expression ... style without
accompaniment or harmony and unbounded by the formality of any particular
musical structure."[44]
A form of this pre-blues was heard in slave ring shouts and field
hollers, expanded into "simple solo songs laden with emotional content".[45]

Blues has evolved from the unaccompanied vocal music and oral traditions of
slaves imported from West Africa and rural blacks into a wide variety of styles
and subgenres, with regional variations across the United States. Though blues,
as it is now known, can be seen as a musical style based on both European harmonic structure
and the African call-and-response tradition, transformed into an interplay of
voice and guitar,[46][47]
the blues form itself bears no resemblance to the melodic styles of the West
African griots, and
the influences are faint and tenuous.[48][49]
In particular, no specific African musical form can be identified as the single
direct ancestor of the blues.[50]
However many blues elements, such as the call-and-response format and the use of
blue notes, can be traced back to the music of Africa. That
blue notes pre-date their use in blues and have an African origin is attested by
English composer Samuel
Coleridge-Taylor's "A Negro Love Song", from his The African Suite for
Piano composed in 1898, which contains blue third and seventh
notes.[51]
The Diddley bow (a
homemade one-stringed instrument found in parts of the American South in the
early twentieth century) and the banjo are African-derived
instruments that may have helped in the transfer of African performance
techniques into the early blues instrumental vocabulary.[52]
The banjo seems to be directly imported from western African music. It is
similar to the musical instrument that griots and other Africans such as
the Igbo[53]
played (called halam or akonting by African peoples
such as the Wolof, Fula and
Madinka).[54]
However, in the 1920s, when country blues began to be recorded, the use of the
banjo in blues music was quite marginal and limited to individuals such as Papa Charlie
Jackson and later Gus
Cannon.[55]

Blues music also adopted elements from the "Ethiopian airs", minstrel
shows and Negro spirituals,
including instrumental and harmonic accompaniment.[56]
The style also was closely related to ragtime, which developed at
about the same time, though the blues better preserved "the original melodic
patterns of African music".[57]

Charlie Patton, one of
the originators of the Delta blues style, playing with a pick or a bottleneck
slide.

The musical forms and styles that are now considered the "blues" as well as
modern "country music"
arose in the same regions during the nineteenth century in the southern United
States. Recorded blues and country can be found from as far back as the 1920s,
when the popular record industry developed and created marketing categories
called "race music" and
"hillbilly music" to sell
music by blacks for blacks and by whites for whites, respectively. At the time,
there was no clear musical division between "blues" and "country," except for
the ethnicity of the performer, and even that was sometimes documented
incorrectly by record companies.[58][59]
Though musicologists can now attempt to define “the blues” narrowly in terms of
certain chord structures and lyric strategies thought to have originated in West
Africa, audiences originally heard the music in a far more general way: it was
simply the music of the rural south, notably the Mississippi Delta. Black and
white musicians shared the same repertoire and thought of themselves as “songsters” rather than “blues
musicians.” The notion of blues as a separate genre arose during the black
migration from the countryside to urban areas in the 1920s and the simultaneous
development of the recording industry. “Blues” became a code word for a record
designed to sell to black listeners.[60]

The origins of the blues are closely related to the religious music of the
Afro-American community, the spirituals. The
origins of spirituals go back much further than the blues, usually dating back
to the middle of the 18th century, when the slaves were Christianized and began
to sing and play Christian hymns, in particular those of Isaac Watts, which were very
popular.[61]
Before the blues gained its formal definition in terms of chord progressions, it
was defined as the secular counterpart of the spirituals. It was the low-down
music played by the rural Blacks. Depending on the religious community a
musician belonged to, it was more or less considered as a sin to play this
low-down music: blues was the devil's music. Musicians were therefore segregated
into two categories: gospel and blues singers, guitar preachers and songsters.
However, at the time rural Black music began to get recorded in the 1920s, both
categories of musicians used very similar techniques: call-and-response
patterns, blue notes, and slide guitars. Gospel music was nevertheless using
musical forms that were compatible with Christian hymns and therefore less
marked by the blues form than its secular counterpart.[62]

[edit]
Pre-war blues

The American sheet
music publishing industry produced a great deal of ragtime music. By 1912, the
sheet music industry had published three popular blues-like compositions,
precipitating the Tin Pan
Alley adoption of blues elements: "Baby Seals' Blues" by "Baby" F. Seals
(arranged by Artie
Matthews), "Dallas Blues" by Hart Wand and "The Memphis Blues" by
W. C. Handy.[63]

Sheet music from "St. Louis Blues"
(1914)

Handy was a formally trained musician, composer and arranger who helped to
popularize the blues by transcribing and orchestrating blues in an almost
symphonic style, with bands and singers. He became a popular and prolific
composer, and billed himself as the "Father of the Blues"; however, his
compositions can be described as a fusion of blues with ragtime and jazz, a
merger facilitated using the Cuban habanera rhythm that
had long been a part of ragtime;[25][64]
Handy's signature work was the "St. Louis
Blues".

In the 1920s, the blues became a major element of African American and
American popular music, reaching white audiences via Handy's arrangements and
the classic female blues performers. The blues evolved from informal
performances in bars to entertainment in theaters. Blues performances were
organized by the Theater
Owners Bookers Association in nightclubs such as the Cotton Club and juke
joints such as the bars along Beale Street in Memphis.
Several record companies, such as the American Record
Corporation, Okeh
Records, and Paramount Records,
began to record African American music.

As the recording industry grew, country blues performers like Bo Carter, Jimmie
Rodgers (country singer), Blind Lemon
Jefferson, Lonnie
Johnson, Tampa Red and
Blind Blake became more
popular in the African American community. Kentucky-born Sylvester Weaver was in
1923 the first to record the slide guitar style, in
which a guitar is fretted with a knife blade or the sawed-off neck of a
bottle.[65]
The slide guitar became an important part of the Delta blues.[66]
The first blues recordings from the 1920s are categorized as a traditional,
rural country blues and
a more polished 'city' or urban blues.

Country blues performers often improvised, either without accompaniment or
with only a banjo or guitar. Regional styles of country blues varied widely in
the early 20th century. The (Mississippi) Delta blues was a rootsy sparse style
with passionate vocals accompanied by slide guitar. The little-recorded Robert
Johnson[67]
combined elements of urban and rural blues. In addition to Robert Johnson,
influential performers of this style included his predecessors Charley Patton and Son House. Singers such as Blind Willie McTell
and Blind Boy Fuller
performed in the southeastern "delicate and lyrical" Piedmont blues tradition,
which used an elaborate ragtime-based fingerpicking guitar
technique. Georgia also had an early slide tradition,[68]
with Curley Weaver, Tampa Red, "Barbecue
Bob" Hicks and James "Kokomo" Arnold as
representatives of this style.[69]

The lively Memphis
blues style, which developed in the 1920s and 1930s near Memphis, Tennessee,
was influenced by jug bands such as the Memphis Jug Band or the
Gus
Cannon's Jug Stompers. Performers such as Frank Stokes, Sleepy John Estes, Robert Wilkins, Joe McCoy, Casey Bill Weldon and
Memphis Minnie used a
variety of unusual instruments such as washboard, fiddle,
kazoo or mandolin. Memphis Minnie was
famous for her virtuoso
guitar style. Pianist Memphis Slim began his
career in Memphis, but his distinct style was smoother and had some swing
elements. Many blues musicians based in Memphis moved to Chicago in the late
1930s or early 1940s and became part of the urban blues movement, which blended
country music and electric blues.[70][71][72]

Bessie Smith, an early
blues singer, was known for her powerful voice.

City or urban blues styles were more codified and elaborate as a performer
was no longer within their local, immediate community and had to adapt to a
larger, more varied audience's aesthetic.[73]
Classic female
urban and vaudeville
blues singers were popular in the 1920s, among them Mamie Smith, Gertrude "Ma" Rainey,
Bessie Smith, and Victoria Spivey. Mamie
Smith, more a vaudeville performer than a blues artist, was the first
African-American to record a blues in 1920; her second record, "Crazy Blues",
sold 75,000 copies in its first month.[74]
Ma Rainey, the "Mother of
Blues", and Bessie Smith each "[sang] around center tones, perhaps in order to
project her voice more easily to the back of a room." Smith would "...sing a
song in an unusual key, and her artistry in bending and stretching notes with
her beautiful, powerful contralto to accommodate her own interpretation was
unsurpassed."[75]
Urban male performers included popular black musicians of the era, such Tampa Red, Big Bill Broonzy and Leroy Carr. A important label
of this era was the chicagoean Bluebird label. Before
WWII, Tampa Red was sometimes referred to as "the Guitar Wizard". Carr
accompanied himself on the piano with Scrapper Blackwell on
guitar, a format that continued well into the 50s with people such as Charles Brown, and even Nat "King" Cole.[66]

A typical boogie-woogie bassline

Boogie-woogie was
another important style of 1930s and early 1940s urban blues.[76]
While the style is often associated with solo piano, boogie-woogie was also used
to accompany singers and, as a solo part, in bands and small combos.
Boogie-Woogie style was characterized by a regular bass figure, an ostinato or riff
and shifts of level in the
left hand, elaborating each chord and trills and decorations in the right hand.
Boogie-woogie was pioneered by the Chicago-based Jimmy Yancey and the
Boogie-Woogie Trio (Albert
Ammons, Pete Johnson
and Meade Lux
Lewis).[77]
Chicago boogie-woogie performers included Clarence "Pine Top" Smith
and Earl Hines, who
"linked the propulsive left-hand rhythms of the ragtime pianists with melodic
figures similar to those of Armstrong's trumpet in the right hand."[73]
The smooth Louisiana style of Professor Longhair
and, more recently, Dr. John
blends classic rhythm and blues with blues styles.

Another development in this period was big band blues.[78]
The "territory bands"
operating out of Kansas
City, the Benny Moten
orchestra, Jay McShann,
and the Count Basie
Orchestra were also concentrating on the blues, with 12-bar blues
instrumentals such as Basie's "One O'Clock Jump" and
"Jumpin' at the
Woodside" and boisterous "blues shouting" by Jimmy Rushing on songs
such as "Going to Chicago" and "Sent for You
Yesterday". A well-known big band blues tune is Glenn Miller's "In the Mood". In the 1940s,
the jump blues style
developed. Jump blues grew up from the boogie woogie wave and was strongly
influenced by big band
music. It uses saxophone or
other brass instruments and
the guitar in the rhythm section to create a jazzy, up-tempo sound with
declamatory vocals. Jump blues tunes by Louis Jordan and Big Joe Turner, based in
Kansas City,
Missouri, influenced the development of later styles such as rock and roll and rhythm and blues.[79]
Dallas-born T-Bone
Walker, which is often associated to the California blues
style,[80]
performed a successful transition from the early urban blues à la Lonnie Johnson and Leroy Carr to the jump blues
style and dominated the blues-jazz scene at Los Angeles during the
1940s.[81]

[edit]
1950s

The transition from country to urban blues, that began in the 1920s, had
always been driven by the successive waves of economic crisis and booms and the
associated move of the rural Blacks to urban areas, the Great
Migration. The long boom in the
aftermath of World War II induced a massive migration of the African American
population, the Second
Great Migration, which was accompanied by a significant increase of the real
income of the urban Blacks. The new migrants constituted a new market for the
music industry. The name race
record disappeared and was succeeded by Rhythm and Blues. This
rapidly evolving market was mirrored by the Billboard Rhythm
and Blues Chart. This marketing strategy reinforced trends within urban
blues music such as the progressive electrification of the instruments, their
amplification and the generalization of the blues beat, the blues shuffle, that
became ubiquitous in R&B. This commercial stream had important consequences
for blues music which, together with Jazz and Gospel music, became a component
of the R&B wave.[82]

Muddy Waters, described as
"the guiding light of the modern blues school"[83]

After World War II and in the 1950s, new styles of electric blues music
became popular in cities such as Chicago,[84]
Memphis,[85]
Detroit[86][87]
and St. Louis.[88]
Electric blues used electric guitars, double bass (slowly replaced
by bass guitar), drums,
and harmonica played through a microphone and a PA system or a guitar amplifier.
Chicago became a center for electric blues from 1948 on, when Muddy Waters recorded his
first success: "I Can't Be Satisfied".[89]
Chicago blues is
influenced to a large extent by the Mississippi blues style,
because many performers had migrated from the Mississippi region. Howlin' Wolf,[90]
Muddy Waters,[91]
Willie Dixon,[92]
and Jimmy Reed[93]
were all born in Mississippi and moved to Chicago during the Great
Migration. Their style is characterized by the use of electric guitar,
sometimes slide guitar, harmonica, and a rhythm
section of bass and drums. J.
T. Brown who played in Elmore James's bands,[94]
or J. B. Lenoir's[95]
also used saxophones, but these were used more as "backing" or rhythmic support
than as solo instruments.

Little Walter and Sonny Boy Williamson
(Rice Miller) are well known harmonica (called "harp"
by blues musicians) players of the early Chicago blues scene. Other harp players
such as Big Walter
Horton were also influential. Muddy Waters and Elmore James were known for
their innovative use of slide electric guitar. Howlin' Wolf and Muddy Waters
were known for their deep, "gravelly" voices.

Bassist and composer Willie Dixon played a major
role on the Chicago blues scene. He composed and wrote many standard blues songs of
the period, such as "Hoochie Coochie
Man", "I Just Want
to Make Love to You" (both penned for Muddy Waters) and, "Wang Dang Doodle" and
"Back Door Man" for
Howlin' Wolf. Most artists of the Chicago blues style recorded for the
Chicago-based Chess
Records and Checker
Records labels. Smaller blues labels of this era included Vee-Jay Records and J.O.B. Records. During
the early 1950s, the dominating Chicago labels were challenged by Sam Phillips' Sun Records company in
Memphis, which recorded B. B. King and Howlin' Wolf before he
moved to Chicago in 1960.[96]
After Phillips discovered Elvis Presley in 1954, the
Sun label turned to the rapidly expanding white audience and started recording
mostly rock 'n' roll.[97]

In the 1950s, blues had a huge influence on mainstream American popular
music. While popular musicians like Bo Diddley[86]
and Chuck Berry,[98]
both recording for Chess, were influenced by the Chicago blues, their
enthusiastic playing styles departed from the melancholy aspects of blues.
Chicago blues also influenced Louisiana's zydeco music,[99]
with Clifton
Chenier[100]
using blues accents. Zydeco musicians used electric solo guitar and cajun arrangements of blues
standards.

Overseas, in England, electric blues took root there during a much acclaimed
Muddy Waters tour. Waters, unsuspecting of his audience's tendency towards skiffle, an acoustic, softer
brand of blues, turned up his amp and started to play his Chicago brand of
electric blues. Although the audience was largely jolted by the performance, the
performance influenced local musicians such as Alexis Korner and Cyril Davies to emulate
this louder style, inspiring the British invasion of the
Rolling Stones and the Yardbirds.[101]

Otis Rush, a pioneer of the
'West Side Sound'

In the late 1950s, a new blues style emerged on Chicago's West Side
pioneered by Magic Sam, Buddy Guy and Otis Rush on Cobra Records.[102]
The 'West Side Sound' had strong rhythmic support from a rhythm guitar, bass
guitar and drums and as pefected by Guy, Freddie King, Magic Slim and Luther Allison was
dominated by amplified electric lead guitar.[103][104]

Other blues artists, such as John Lee Hooker had
influences not directly related to the Chicago style. John Lee Hooker's blues is
more "personal", based on Hooker's deep rough voice accompanied by a single
electric guitar. Though not directly influenced by boogie woogie, his "groovy"
style is sometimes called "guitar boogie". His first hit, "Boogie
Chillen", reached #1 on the R&B charts in 1949.[105]

By the late 1950s, the swamp blues genre developed
near Baton Rouge, with performers
such as Lightnin'
Slim,[106]
Slim Harpo,[107]
Sam Myers and Jerry McCain around the
producer J. D.
"Jay" Miller and the Excello label. Strongly
influenced by Jimmy Reed,
Swamp blues has a slower pace and a simpler use of the harmonica than the
Chicago blues style performers such as Little Walter or Muddy Waters. Songs from
this genre include "Scratch my Back", "She's Tough" and "I'm a King Bee".

[edit]
1960s and 1970s

By the beginning of the 1960s, genres influenced by African American
music such as rock and
roll and soul were part of mainstream
popular music. White performers had brought African-American music to new
audiences, both within the US and abroad. However, the blues wave that brought
artists such as Muddy Waters to the foreground had stopped. Bluesmen such as Big Bill Broonzy and Willie Dixon started
looking for new markets in Europe. Dick Waterman and the
blues festivals he organized in Europe played a major role in propagating blues
music abroad. In the UK, bands emulated US blues legends, and UK
blues-rock-based bands had an influential role throughout the 1960s.[108]

Blues legend B.B. King with his guitar,
"Lucille".

Blues performers such as John Lee Hooker and Muddy Waters continued to
perform to enthusiastic audiences, inspiring new artists steeped in traditional
blues, such as New York–born Taj Mahal. John Lee Hooker blended
his blues style with rock elements and playing with younger white musicians,
creating a musical style that can be heard on the 1971 album Endless
Boogie. B. B. King's virtuoso guitar
technique earned him the eponymous title "king of the blues". In contrast to the
Chicago style, King's band used strong brass support from a saxophone, trumpet,
and trombone, instead of using slide guitar or harp. Tennessee-born Bobby "Blue"
Bland, like B. B. King, also straddled the blues and R&B genres. During
this period, Freddie King and Albert King often played with rock and soul
musicians (Eric Clapton, Booker T & the
MGs) and had a major influence on those styles of music.

The music of the Civil
Rights[109]
and Free Speech
movements in the US prompted a resurgence of
interest in American roots music and early African American music. As well
as Jimmi Bass Music festivals such as the Newport Folk
Festival[110]
brought traditional blues to a new audience, which helped to revive interest in
prewar acoustic blues and performers such as Son House, Mississippi John
Hurt, Skip James, and
Reverend Gary
Davis.[109]
Many compilations of classic prewar blues were republished by the Yazoo Records. J. B. Lenoir from the
Chicago blues movement in the 1950s recorded several LPs using acoustic guitar,
sometimes accompanied by Willie Dixon on the
acoustic bass or drums. His songs, originally distributed in Europe only,[111]
commented on political issues such as racism or Vietnam War issues, which
was unusual for this period. His Alabama Blues recording had a song that
stated:

I never will go back to Alabama, that is not the place for me (2x)
You
know they killed my sister and my brother,
and the whole world let them
peoples go down there free

White audiences' interest in the blues during the 1960s increased due to the
Chicago-based Paul Butterfield Blues
Band and the British
blues movement. The style of British blues developed in the UK, when bands
such as The Animals, Fleetwood Mac, John
Mayall & the Bluesbreakers, The Rolling Stones,
The Yardbirds, and Cream
and Irish musician Rory
Gallagher performed classic blues songs from the Delta or Chicago blues
traditions.[112]
Many of Led Zeppelin's
earlier hits were renditions of traditional blues songs.

The British and blues musicians of the early 1960s inspired a number of
American blues rock fusion
performers, including Canned
Heat, the early Jefferson Airplane,
Janis Joplin, Johnny Winter, The J. Geils Band, Ry Cooder, and The Allman Brothers
Band. One blues rock
performer, Jimi Hendrix,
was a rarity in his field at the time: a black man who played psychedelic rock.
Hendrix was a skilled guitarist, and a pioneer in the innovative use of distortion and feedback in his music.[113]
Through these artists and others, blues music influenced the development of rock music.[114]

Santana, which was
originally called the Carlos Santana Blues Band, also experimented with
Latin-influenced blues and
blues-rock music around this time. At the end of the 1950s appeared the very
bluesy Tulsa Sound merging
rock'n'roll, jazz and country influences. This particular music style started to
be broadly popularized within the 1970s by J.J. Cale
and the cover versions performed by Eric Clapton of "After Midnight" and "Cocaine".

In the early 1970s, The Texas rock-blues style
emerged, which used guitars in both solo and rhythm roles. In contrast with the
West Side blues, the Texas style is strongly influenced by the British
rock-blues movement. Major artists of the Texas style are Johnny Winter, Stevie Ray Vaughan,
The Fabulous
Thunderbirds, and ZZ Top.
These artists all began their musical journey in the 1970s, but they did not
achieve major international success until the next decade.[115]

[edit]
1980s to the 2000s

Since the 1980s, there has been a resurgence of interest in the blues among a
certain part of the African-American population, particularly around Jackson,
Mississippi and other deep
South regions. Often termed "soul blues" or "Southern soul", the music
at the heart of this movement was given new life by the unexpected success of
two particular recordings on the Jackson-based Malaco label:[116]
Z. Z. Hill's Down Home
Blues (1982) and Little
Milton's The Blues is Alright (1984). Contemporary African-American
performers who work this vein of the blues include Bobby Rush, Denise LaSalle, Sir Charles Jones, Bettye LaVette, Marvin Sease and Peggy Scott-Adams.

Texas blues guitarist Stevie Ray
Vaughan

During the 1980s, blues also continued in both traditional and new forms. In
1986, the album Strong Persuader
revealed Robert Cray as a
major blues artist.[117]
The first Stevie Ray
Vaughan recording, Texas Flood, was
released in 1983, and the Texas-based guitarist exploded onto the international
stage. 1989 saw a revival of John Lee Hooker's
popularity with the album The Healer. Eric Clapton, known for his
performances with the Blues
Breakers and Cream, made a comeback in
the 1990s with his album Unplugged,
in which he played some standard blues numbers on acoustic guitar. However,
beginning in the 1990s, digital multitrack
recording and other technological advances and new marketing strategies that
include video clip
production have increased costs, and challenge the spontaneity and improvisation
that are an important component of blues music.[118]

In the 1980s and 1990s, blues publications such as Living Blues and
Blues Revue began to be distributed, major cities began forming blues
societies, outdoor blues festivals became more common, and[119]
more nightclubs and venues for
blues emerged.[120]

In the 1990s, blues performers explored a range of musical genres, as can be
seen, for example, from the broad array of nominees of the yearly Blues Music Awards,
previously named W. C. Handy Awards[121]
or of the Grammy
Awards for Best Contemporary and Traditional
Blues Album. The Bilboard
Blues Album chart monitors and therefore provides an overview over the
current blues production. Contemporary blues music is nurtured by several blues
labels such as: Alligator Records, Ruf Records, Chess Records (MCA), Delmark Records, NorthernBlues Music,
and Vanguard Records
(Artemis
Records). Some labels are famous for their rediscovering and remastering of
blues rarities such as Arhoolie Records, Smithsonian
Folkways Recordings (heir of Folkways Records) and
Yazoo Records (Shanachie
Records).[122]

[edit]
Musical impact

Blues musical styles, forms (12-bar blues), melodies, and the blues scale
have influenced many other genres of music, such as rock and roll, jazz, and
popular music.[123]
Prominent jazz, folk or rock performers, such as Louis Armstrong, Duke Ellington, Miles Davis, and Bob Dylan have performed
significant blues recordings. The blues scale is often used in popular songs like Harold Arlen's "Blues in
the Night", blues ballads like "Since I
Fell for You" and "Please Send Me Someone to Love", and even in orchestral works
such as George
Gershwin's "Rhapsody
in Blue" and "Concerto in F". Gershwin's second "Prelude" for solo piano is
an interesting example of a classical blues, maintaining the form with academic
strictness. The blues scale is ubiquitous in modern popular music and informs
many modal frames,
especially the ladder of
thirds used in rock music (e.g., in "A Hard Day's
Night"). Blues forms are used in the theme to the televised Batman, teen idol Fabian's hit, "Turn
Me Loose", country
music star Jimmie
Rodgers' music, and guitarist/vocalist Tracy Chapman's hit "Give
Me One Reason".

R&B music can be traced back
to spirituals and blues.
Musically, spirituals were a descendant of New England choral
traditions, and in particular of Isaac Watts's hymns, mixed with African rhythms
and call-and-response forms. Spirituals or religious chants in the
African-American community are much better documented than the "low-down" blues.
Spiritual singing developed because African-American communities could gather
for mass or worship gatherings, which were called camp meetings.

Early country bluesmen such as Skip James, Charley Patton, Georgia Tom Dorsey
played country and urban blues and had influences from spiritual singing. Dorsey
helped to popularize Gospel
music.[124]
Gospel music developed in the 1930s, with the Golden Gate Quartet.
In the 1950s, soul music
by Sam Cooke, Ray Charles and James Brown used gospel and
blues music elements. In the 1960s and 1970s, gospel and blues were these merged
in soul blues music. Funk music of the 1970s was
influenced by soul; funk can be seen as an antecedent of hip-hop and
contemporary R&B.

Duke Ellington straddled
the big band and bebop genres. Ellington
extensively used the blues form.[125]

Before World War II,
the boundaries between blues and jazz were less clear. Usually jazz
had harmonic structures stemming from brass bands, whereas blues
had blues forms such as the 12-bar blues. However, the jump blues of the 1940s
mixed both styles. After WWII, blues had a substantial influence on jazz. Bebop classics, such as Charlie Parker's "Now's
the Time", used the blues form with the pentatonic scale and blue notes. Bebop
marked a major shift in the role of jazz, from a popular style of music for
dancing, to a "high-art," less-accessible, cerebral "musician's music". The
audience for both blues and jazz split, and the border between blues and jazz
became more defined. Artists straddling the boundary between jazz and blues are
categorized into the jazz blues sub-genre.[125][126]

The blues' twelve-bar structure and the blues scale was a major influence on
rock and roll music.
Rock and roll has been called "blues with a backbeat"; Carl Perkins called rockabilly "blues with a country beat".
Rockabillies were also said to be twelve-bar blues played with a bluegrass beat. "Hound Dog", with its
unmodified twelve-bar structure (in both harmony and lyrics) and a melody
centered on flatted third of the tonic (and flatted seventh of the subdominant),
is a blues song transformed into a rock and roll song. Jerry Lee Lewis's style
of rock and roll was heavily influenced by the blues and its derivative boogie
woogie. His style of music was not exactly rockabilly but it has been often
called real rock and roll (this is a label he shares with several African
American rock and roll performers).[127][128]

Early country music
was infused with the blues.[129]
Jimmie
Rodgers, Moon
Mullican, Bob Wills, Bill Monroe and Hank Williams have all
described themselves as blues singers and their music has a blues feel that is
different to the country pop of Eddy Arnold. A lot of the
1970s-era "outlaw" country music by Willie Nelson and Waylon Jennings also
borrowed from the blues. When Jerry Lee Lewis returned
to country after the decline of 1950s style rock and roll, he sang his country
with a blues feel and often included blues standards on his albums. Many early
rock and roll songs are based on blues: "That's All Right
Mama", "Johnny B.
Goode", "Blue Suede
Shoes", "Whole Lotta
Shakin' Goin On", "Shake, Rattle, and
Roll", and "Long Tall
Sally". The early African American rock musicians retained the sexual themes
and innuendos of blues music: "Got a gal named Sue, knows just what to do" ("Tutti Frutti", Little Richard) or "See
the girl with the red dress on, She can do the Birdland all night long" ("What'd I Say", Ray Charles). The twelve-bar
blues structure can be found even in novelty pop songs, such as Bob Dylan's "Obviously Five
Believers" and Esther and Abi
Ofarim's "Cinderella
Rockefella".

[edit]
In popular culture

The music of Taj Mahal for the
1972 movie Sounder
marked a revival of interest in acoustic blues.

Like jazz, rock and roll, heavy metal music, hip hop music, reggae, country music, and pop music, blues has been
accused of being the "devil's music" and of inciting
violence and other poor behavior.[130]
In the early 20th century, the blues was considered disreputable, especially as
white audiences began listening to the blues during the 1920s.[64]
In the early twentieth century, W.C. Handy was the first to
popularize blues-influenced music among non-black Americans.

During the blues revival of the 1960s and '70s, acoustic blues artist Taj Mahal and
legendary Texas bluesman Lightnin' Hopkins
wrote and performed music that figured prominently in the popularly and
critically acclaimed film Sounder (1972). The
film earned Mahal a Grammy nomination for Best
Original Score Written for a Motion Picture and a BAFTA nomination.[131]
Almost 30 years later, Mahal wrote blues for, and performed a banjo
composition, claw-hammer style, in the 2001 movie release "Songcatcher", which focused
on the story of the preservation of the roots music of
Appalachia.

Perhaps the most visible example of the blues style of music in the late 20th
century came in 1980, when Dan Aykroyd and John Landis released the
film The Blues
Brothers. The film drew many of the biggest living influenciers of the
Rhythm and blues
genre together, such as Ray
Charles, James Brown,
Cab Calloway, Aretha Franklin, and John Lee Hooker. The
band formed also began a successful tour under the Blues Brothers
marquee. 1998 brought a sequel, Blues Brothers
2000 that, while not holding as great a critical and financial success,
featured a much larger number of blues artists, such as B.B. King, Bo Diddley, Erykah Badu, Eric Clapton, Steve Winwood, Charlie Musselwhite,
Blues Traveller, Jimmy Vaughn, Jeff Baxter.

In 2003, Martin
Scorsese made significant efforts to promote the blues to a larger audience.
He asked several famous directors such as Clint Eastwood and Wim Wenders to participate
in a series of documentary films for PBS called The Blues.[132]
He also participated in the rendition of compilations of major blues artists in
a series of high-quality CDs. Blues guitarist and vocalist Keb' Mo' performed his
blues rendition of "America, the
Beautiful" in 2006 to close out the final season of the television series
The West
Wing.

See also: List of
films based on blues music

[edit]
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[edit]
Notes

^
"The Evolution of Differing Blues Styles". How To Play Blues
Guitar. http://how-to-play-blues-guitar.com/the-blues/the-evolution-of-different-blues-styles/. Retrieved 2008-08-11.

^ The "Trésor de
la Langue Française informatisé" provides this etymology to the word blues and
George Colman's farce as the first appearance of this term in the English
language, see "Blues". Centre Nationale de Ressources Textuelles et
Lixicales. http://atilf.atilf.fr/dendien/scripts/fast.exe?mot=blues. Retrieved 15 October 2010.  (French)

^ Davis, Francis.
The History of the Blues. New York: Hyperion, 1995.

^ Eric Partridge,
A Dictionary of Slang and Unconventional English, 2002, Routledge (UK),
ISBN
0-415-29189-5

^ Tony Bolden,
Afro-Blue: Improvisations in African American Poetry and Culture, 2004,
University
of Illinois Press, ISBN
0-252-02874-0

^ Bob
Brozman (2002). "The
evolution of the 12-bar blues progression,". http://www.bobbrozman.com/tip_evol12bar.html. Retrieved 2009-05-02.

^ Samuel Charters in
Nothing But The Blues, pg. 20.

^ "Ellen Fullman, "The Long String Instrument", MusicWorks,
Issue #37 Fall 1987". http://www.deepmedia.org/ellenfullman/mw85/fullman_article.pdf.

^ "A Jazz Improvisation Almanac, Outside Shore Music Online
School". http://www.outsideshore.com/school/music/almanac/html/Music_Theory/Jazz_Scales/Blues_And_Bebop_Scales/Blues_Scale.htm.

^ Ewen, pg.
143

^ Grace notes
were common in the Baroque and Classical periods,
but they acted as ornamentation rather than as part of the harmonic structure.
For example, Wolfgang Amadeus
Mozart's Piano
Concerto No. 21 has a flatted fifth in the dominant. In these periods,
this was a technique for building tension for resolution into the perfect
fifth; in contrast, a blues melody uses the flatted fifth as part of the
scale.[citation
needed]

^ Kunzler, pg.
1065

^ Barry Pearson,
in Nothing but the blues, pg. 316

^ David
Hamburger, Acoustic Guitar Slide Basics, 2001, ISBN
1-890490-38-5.

^ "Lesson 72: Basic Blues Shuffle by Jim Burger". http://www.wholenote.com/default.asp?src=l&l=72&p=1. Retrieved November 25, 2005.

^ Wilbur M.
Savidge, Randy L. Vradenburg, Everything About Playing the Blues, 2002,
Music Sales Distributed, ISBN
1-884848-09-5, pg. 35

^ Ferris, pg.
230

^ Father of the
Blues: An Autobiography. by W.C. Handy, edited by Arna Bontemps: foreword by
Abbe Niles. Macmillan Company, New York; (1941) page 143. no ISBN in this
first printing

^ Ewen, pgs.
142–143

^ Blesh, Rudi; Janis, Harriet Grossman (1958). They all played ragtime, the true story of an American
music. Sidgwick & Jackson. p. 186. ISBN 9781443731522. http://books.google.com/books?id=awHY-w8_iTsC&pg=PA186.

^ Thomas (Jr.), James G. (2007). The New Encyclopedia
of Southern Culture: Ethnicity. University of North Carolina Press.
p. 166.

^ Komara, pg.
476

^ Allan F. Moore (2002). The Cambridge companion to
blues and gospel music. Cambridge University Press. p. 32. ISBN 0521001072.

^ Oliver, pg.
281

^ a
b
Morales, pg. 277

^ Mark A.
Humphrey, in Nothing but the blues, pgs. 107-149

^ Calt, Stephen; Nick Perls, Michael Stewart. Album notes for Ten years of black country religion
1926–1936 [vinyl back cover]. New York: Yazoo Records
(L-1022).

^ "Reverend Gary Davis". Reverend Gary Davis. 2009. http://culturalequity.org/alanlomax/ce_alanlomax_profile_reverend_gary_davis.jsp. Retrieved 2009-02-03. [dead
link]

^ Michael Corcoran. "The Soul of Blind Willie Johnson". Austin
American-Statesman. http://www.austin360.com/music/content/music/blindwilliejohnson_092803.html. Retrieved 2009-02-03.

^ David Evans,
in Nothing but the blues, pg. 33

^ a
b
Kunzler, pg. 130

^ Bruce Bastin,
in Nothing but the blues, pg. 206

^ David Evans,
in Nothing but the blues, pgs. 33-35

^ John H.
Cowley, in Nothing but the blues, pg. 265

^ John H.
Cowley, in Nothing but the blues, pgs. 268-269

^ "Lead Belly
foundation". http://www.leadbelly.org/re-homepage.html. Retrieved 2008-09-26.

^ Dave Oliphant. "Henry Thomas". The Handbook of Texas online. http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/TT/fthxc.html. Retrieved 2008-09-26.

^ Garofalo, pgs.
46–47

^ Oliver, pg.
3

^ Philip V.
Bohlman, "Immigrant, folk, and regional music in the twentieth century", in
The Cambridge History of American Music, ed. David Nicholls, 1999, Cambridge
University Press, ISBN
0-521-45429-8, pg. 285

^
Oliver, Paul (1984). Blues Off the
Record:Thirty Years of Blues Commentary. New York: Da Capo Press.
pp. 45–47. ISBN 0-306-80321-6.

^ Lawrence W.
Levine, Black Culture and Black Consciousness: Afro-American Folk Thought
from Slavery to Freedom, Oxford University
Press, 1977, ISBN
0-19-502374-9, pg. 223

^ Southern, pg.
333

^ Garofalo, pg.
44

^ Ferris, pg.
229

^ Morales, pg.
276 Morales attributes this claim to John Storm Roberts in Black Music of
Two Worlds, beginning his discussion with a quote from Roberts: "There
does not seem to be the same African quality in blues forms as there clearly
is in much Caribbean music."

^
"Call and Response in Blues". How To Play Blues Guitar. http://how-to-play-blues-guitar.com/blues-concepts/call-and-response/. Retrieved 2008-08-11.

^ Samuel Charters, in
Nothing But the Blues, page 25

^ Oliver, pg.
4

^ Barbara Vierwo, Andy Trudeau. The Curious Listener's
Guide to the Blues. Stone Press. p. 15. ISBN 0-399-53072-X.

^ From the Erotic to the Demonic: On Critical
Musicology.. Oxford University Press. 2003. p. 182. "A blues idiom is
hinted at in "A Negro Love-Song", a pentatonic melody with blue third and
seventh in Colridge-Taylor's African Suit of 1898, many years before
the first blues publications."

^ Bill Steper (1999). "African-American Music from the Mississippi Hill Country: "They
Say Drums was a-Calling"". The APF Reporter. http://www.aliciapatterson.org/APF1902/Steber/Steber.html. Retrieved 2008-10-27.

^ Chambers, Douglas B. (2009). Murder at Montpelier: Igbo Africans in Virginia. Univ.
Press of Mississippi. p. 180. ISBN 16-047-3246-6. http://books.google.com/books?id=vqpoxEl_0_4C&pg=PA180.

^ Samuel Charters, in
Nothing but the blues, pg. 14-15

^ Samuel
Charters, in Nothing but the blues, pg. 16

^ Garofalo, pg.
44 Gradually, instrumental and harmonic accompaniment were added,
reflecting increasing cross-cultural contact. Garofalo cites other authors
that also mention the "Ethiopian airs" and "Negro spirituals".

^ Schuller,
cited in Garofalo, pg. 27

^ Garofalo, pgs.
44–47 "As marketing categories, designations like race and hillbilly
intentionally separated artists along racial lines and conveyed the impression
that their music came from mutually exclusive sources. Nothing could have been
further from the truth... In cultural terms, blues and country were more equal
than they were separate." Garofalo claims that "artists were sometimes listed
in the wrong racial category in record company catalogues."

^ Charles Wolfe
in Nothing but the Blues, pgs. 233-263

^ Golding, Barrett. "The
Rise of the Country Blues". NPR. http://www.honkytonks.org/showpages/countryblues.htm. Retrieved 2008-12-27.

^ Mark A.
Humphrey in Nothing but the blues, pg. 110

^ Mark A.
Humphrey in Nothing but the blues, pgs. 107-149

^ Garofalo, pg.
27; Garofalo cites Barlow in "Handy's sudden success demonstrated [the]
commercial potential of [the blues], which in turn made the genre attractive
to the Tin Pan Alley hacks, who wasted little time in turning out a deluge of
imitations." (parentheticals in Garofalo)

^ a
b
Garofalo, pg. 27

^ "Kentuckiana Blues Society". http://members.aye.net/~kbsblues/awards.htm#Weaver. Retrieved 2008-09-26.

^ a
b
Clarke, pg. 138

^ Clarke, pg.
141

^ Clarke, pg.
139

^ Calt, Stephen; Nick Perls, Michael Stewart. Album notes for The Georgia Blues 1927–1933 [vinyl
back cover]. New York: Yazoo Records
(L-1012).

^ Phoenix Delray (2008-08-17). "The history of Memphis blues music".
http://www.articlesbase.com/art-and-entertainment-articles/the-history-of-memphis-blues-music-489628.html. Retrieved 2008-08-27.

^ Kent, Don (1968).
Album
notes for 10 Years In Memphis 1927–1937 [vinyl back cover]. New
York: Yazoo Records
(L-1002).

^ Calt, Stephen; Nick Perls, Michael Stewart (1970). Album notes for Memphis Jamboree 1927–1936 [vinyl back
cover]. New York: Yazoo
Records (L-1021).

^ a
b
Garofalo, pg. 47

^ Hawkeye Herman. "Blues
Foundation homepage". Blues Foundation. http://www.blues.org/blues/essays.php4?Id=3. Retrieved 15 October 2010.

^ Clarke, pg.
137

^ Piero Scaruffi (2005). "A brief
history of Blues Music". http://www.scaruffi.com/history/blues.html. Retrieved 2008-08-14.

^ Oliver, Paul. Album notes for Boogie Woogie Trio [vinyl
back cover]. Copenhagen: Storyville (SLP 184).

^ Piero Scaruffi (2003). "Kansas City:
Big Bands". http://www.scaruffi.com/history/jazz7.html. Retrieved 2008-08-27.

^ Garofalo, pg.
76

^ Komara, pg.
120

^ Mark A.
Humphrey, in Nothing but the blues, pgs. 175-177

^ Barry Pearson
in Nothing but the blues, pgs. 313-314

^ Dicaire
(1999), p. 79

^ Komara, pg.
118

^ Mark A.
Humphry, in Nothing but the blues, pg. 179

^ a
b
Herzhaft, pg. 53

^ Pierson, Leroy (1976). Album
notes for Detroit Ghetto Blues 1948 to 1954 [vinyl back cover]. St.
Louis: Nighthawk
Records (104).

^ Piero Scaruffi (2003). "A brief history
of Rhythm'n'Blues". http://www.scaruffi.com/history/rb.html. Retrieved 2008-08-14.

^ Mark A.
Humphrey, in Nothing but the blues, pg. 180

^ Piero Scaruffi (1999). "Howlin'
Wolf". http://www.scaruffi.com/vol1/wolf.html. Retrieved 2008-08-14.

^ Piero Scaruffi (1999). "Muddy
Waters". http://www.scaruffi.com/vol1/waters.html. Retrieved 2008-08-14.

^ Piero Scaruffi (1999). "Willie
Dixon". http://www.scaruffi.com/vol1/dixon.html. Retrieved 2008-08-14.

^ Piero Scaruffi (1999). "Jimmy
Reed". http://www.scaruffi.com/vol1/reed.html. Retrieved 2008-08-14.

^ Piero Scaruffi (1999). "Elmore
James". http://www.scaruffi.com/vol1/james.html. Retrieved 2008-08-14.

^ Piero Scaruffi (2003). "J. B.
Lenoir". http://www.scaruffi.com/vol1/lenoir.html. Retrieved 2008-08-14.

^ Mark A.
Humphrey, in Nothing but the blues, pg. 187

^ Barry Pearson,
in Nothing but the blues, pg. 342

^ Herzhaft, pg.
11

^ Herzhaft, pg.
236

^ Herzhaft, pg.
35

^ Palmer
(1981), pgs. 257-259

^ Koroma, pg.
49

^ "Blues". Encyclopedia of Chicago. http://www.encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org/pages/151.html. Retrieved 2008-08-13.

^ C. Michael Bailey (2003-10-04). "West
Side Chicago Blues". All about Jazz. http://www.allaboutjazz.com/php/article.php?id=11835. Retrieved 2008-08-13.

^ Lars Bjorn,
Before Motown, 2001, University of
Michigan Press, ISBN
0-472-06765-6, pg. 175

^ Herzhaft, pg
116

^ Herzhaft, pg.
188

^ Jim O'Neal in
Nothing but the blues, pgs 347-387

^ a
b
Koroma, pg. 122

^ Koroma, pg.
388

^ Jim O'Neal,
in Nothing but the blues, pg. 380

^ "A Short Blues
History". History of Rock. http://www.history-of-rock.com/blues.htm. Retrieved 2008-08-14.

^ Garofalo,
pgs. 224–225

^ "History of heavy metal: Origins and early popularity (1960s and
early 1970s)". 2006-09-18. http://infernality.blogspot.com/2006/09/origins-and-early-popularity-1960s-and.html. Retrieved 2008-08-13.

^ Koroma, pg.
50

^ Stephen Martin (2008-04-03). "Malaco Records to be honored with blues trail marker".
Mississippi development authority. http://www.visitmississippi.org/press_news/Malaco%20Blues%20Marker%20April%208.pdf. Retrieved 2008-08-28. [dead
link]

^ Piero Scaruffi (2005). "The History
of Rock Music: 1976–1989, Blues, 1980-81". http://www.scaruffi.com/history/cpt416.html. Retrieved 2008-08-14.

^ Mary
Katherine Aldin, in Nothing but the blues, pg. 130

^ A directory
of the most significant blues festivals can be found at "Blues - By
Category". About.com. http://blues.about.com/od/bluesfestivals/. Retrieved 15 October 2010.

^ A list of
important blues venues in the U.S. can be found at "About.com". http://blues.about.com/cs/venues/. Retrieved 15 October 2010.

^ "Blues Music Awards
information". http://www.blues.org/bluesmusicawards/. Retrieved November 25, 2005.

^ A complete
directory of contemporary blues labels can be found at "About.com". http://blues.about.com/cs/recordlabels. Retrieved 15 October 2010. /

^ Jennifer Nicole (2005-08-15). "The Blues: The Revolution of Music".
http://www.googobits.com/articles/p6-2006-the-blues--the-revolution-of-music.html. Retrieved 2008-08-17.

^ Phil Petrie. "History of gospel
music". http://afgen.com/gospel1.html. Retrieved 2008-09-08.

^ a
b
"The Influence of the Blues on Jazz". Thelonious Monk
Institute of Jazz. http://www.jazzinamerica.org/pdf/1/Influence%20of%20Jazz%20on%20Blues.pdf. Retrieved 2008-08-17.

^ Peter Van der Merwe (2004). Roots of the classical:
the popular origins of western music. Oxford University Press.
p. 461. ISBN 0198166478.

^ "The Blues
Influence On Rock & Roll". http://www.lclark.edu/~ria/the_bl~1.htm. Retrieved 2008-08-17.

^ "History of Rock and
Roll". Zip-Country Homepage. http://www.zip-country.com/Rock.htm. Retrieved 2008-09-02. [dead
link]

^ "Country music". Columbia College Chicago. 2007–2008.
Archived from the original on 2008-06-02. http://web.archive.org/web/20080602011023/http://www.colum.edu/CBMR/Styles_and_Genres/Country_Music.php. Retrieved 2008-09-02.

^ SFGate

^ "Sounder"Internet Movie Database. Retrieved 11-02-2007.

^ "The Blues" (2003) (mini) at the Internet Movie
Database

[edit]
References

Barlow, William (1993). "Cashing In".
Split File: African Americans in the Mass Media: 31.

Bransford, Steve. "Blues in the Lower Chattahoochee Valley" Southern
Spaces 2004

Clarke, Donald (1995). The Rise and Fall of
Popular Music. St. Martin's
Press. ISBN 0-312-11573-3.

Lawrence Cohn, ed
(1993). Nothing But the Blues: The Music and the Musicians. Abbeville
Press. ISBN 1558592717.

Dicaire, David (1999). Blues Singers:
Biographies of 50 Legendary Artists of the Early 20th Century. McFarland.
ISBN 0-7864-0606-2.

Ewen, David (1957). Panorama of American
Popular Music. Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-648360-7.

Ferris, Jean (1993). America's Musical
Landscape. Brown & Benchmark. ISBN 0-697-12516-5.

Garofalo, Reebee (1997). Rockin' Out:
Popular Music in the USA. Allyn & Bacon. ISBN 0-205-13703-2.

Herzhaft, Gérard, Paul Harris and, Brigitte
Debord (1997). Encyclopedia of the Blues. University of
Arkansas Press. ISBN 1-557-28452-0.

Komara, Edward M. (2006). Encyclopedia of
the blues. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-92699-8.

Kunzler, Martin (1988) (in German). Jazz
Lexikon. Rohwolt Taschenbuch Verlag. ISBN 3-499-16316-0.

Morales, Ed (2003). The Latin Beat. Da Capo Press. ISBN 0-306-81018-2.

Oliver, Paul and Richard
Wright (1990). Blues fell this
morning: Meaning in the blues. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-37793-5.

Palmer,
Robert (1981). Deep Blues. Viking. pp. 310 pages. ISBN 0-670-49511-5.

Schuller, Gunther (1968). Early Jazz: Its
Roots and Musical Development. Oxford University
Press. ISBN 0-19-504043-0.

Southern, Eileen (1997). The Music of Black
Americans. W. W. Norton
& Company. ISBN 0-393-03843-2.

Curiel, Jonathan. "Muslim Roots of the Blues". SFGate. http://sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=/chronicle/archive/2004/08/15/INGMC85SSK1.DTL. Retrieved August 24, 2005.

[edit]
Further reading

Brown, Luther. "Inside
Poor Monkey's", Southern Spaces,
June 22, 2006.

Oakley, Giles (1976). The Devil's Music: a History of the Blues. London: BBC. pp. 287. ISBN 0-563-16012-8. http://books.google.com/books?id=eVaedQMqi2UC&printsec=frontcover.

Keil, Charles (1966, 1991). Urban Blues. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
pp. 255 + ix + 8pp of plates. ISBN 0226429601. http://books.google.com/books?id=Yl-8ihykkQ8C&printsec=frontcover.

Oliver, Paul (1998). The Story Of The Blues (new ed.). Northeastern
University Press. pp. 212. ISBN 1-55553-355-8. http://books.google.com/books?id=11dltCqYvZIC&printsec=frontcover.

Oliver, Paul (1965). Conversation with the Blues, Volume 1. New York:
Horizon Press. pp. 217. ISBN 0818012234. http://books.google.com/books?id=YS0Vva57m8UC&printsec=frontcover.

Rowe, Mike (1973). Chicago Breakdown.
Eddison Press. pp. 226 pages. ISBN 0-85649-015-6.

Titon, Jeff Todd (1994). Early Downhome Blues: a Musical and Cultural Analysis
(2nd ed.). University
of North Carolina Press. pp. 318 pages. ISBN 0-8078-4482-9. http://books.google.com/books?id=yPKlxdCBmk0C&printsec=frontcover.

[edit]
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