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Teaching and Learning: Higher
Education

Gale Encyclopedia
of Education:

Teaching and Learning: Higher
Education

Home > Library > History,
Politics & Society > Education
Encyclopedia

Student learning in higher education is a function of both formal and
informal experiences. Formal learning takes place as a result of a classroom or
related activity structured by a teacher and/or others for the purpose of
helping students to achieve specified cognitive, or other, objectives. Informal
learning encompasses all the other outcomes of students' participation in a
higher education experience. In both cases, the more extended or comprehensive
the experience, the greater the potential effect. In a comprehensive 1991
review, Ernest Pascarella and Patrick Terenzini described the ways in which
college affects students with respect to many kinds of learning. While they
found that formal learning related to academic and cognitive skills, and to
subject-matter competence, informal learning was shown to impact on many other
areas.

Complications arise, however, because of the number and variety of variables
affecting college learning. For example, while the differences between being a
residential student and a commuter student do not seem to greatly affect
cognitive or subject-matter learning, they are relatively influential with
respect to psychosocial
change, intellectual and cultural values, independence, and similar factors. Is
this purely an on-campus versus off-campus difference? Age may be an intervening
variable in such cases, because one would expect older, working adults (a
constantly growing student population in all of higher education) to represent a
substantial percentage of students living off-campus. Given that less
psychosocial change might be expected with such learners - because their
attitudes and values are already well established - the observed differences
between on-and off-campus learning could be a function of student demographic
differences such as age, as well as the environment itself. For example, while
the influence of college on the intellectual and cultural values of resident
students is significant, this effect derives much of its impact from immersion in the
college environment and the maturation of younger learners who may not have had
a broad range of experience. Adult, non-resident learners may have more
firmly-held beliefs and a broader range of experience and by simple maturation,
may already have developed more refined sets of values. Thus it is not simply
location that makes the difference, but the combination of location and
characteristics of the learners.

The Theory Behind the Practice

When the first edition of this encyclopedia was published in 1971, the prevailing
approach to teaching and learning was the behaviorist model. Developed by
B. F. Skinner and others in the 1950s, this model considered stimuli such as
instructional events or activities, the responses of learners to these stimuli,
and contingencies or consequences based on those responses. The basic
proposition was that learning occurred when the desired responses were elicited
by the stimuli. Robert Mager's work with instructional objectives
(precise statements of intended behaviors along with measurement criteria) and
Benjamin Bloom and colleague's 1956 taxonomies (classification schemes)
of objectives were also major influences on the ways in which instruction was
designed and delivered. The taxonomic levels are knowledge, comprehension,
application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. A practical problem for
teachers is that there can be objectives for literally every instructional
activity and every kind of behavior - from acquiring basic knowledge to
classroom attentiveness and the development of value systems. While behaviorism
has been largely replaced as an instructional theory, the underlying value of
clear objectives, appropriate measurement criteria, and the specification of
various types of desired learning have remained as important basics for
designing effective instruction.

Cognitive theory, essentially the position that learning involves the
learner's
associations of new stimuli with existing concepts and categorization schemes,
regained some support in the 1970s and has continued to develop in its
applications since that time. Marilla Svinicki (1999) outlined five general
strategies for teaching that derive from the early theory: (1) directing
students' attention through verbal or visual cues; (2) emphasizing how material
is organized, again with various cues; (3) making information more meaningful by
providing associations with other material or applications; (4) encouraging
active checking of understanding through questioning and feedback; and (5)
compensating for limits of information processing and memory systems with
smaller amounts of information, review, breaks, and focusing attention.

Metacognition, or thinking about thinking, went beyond simple
associations and brought learners more into the process of actively manipulating
new information and incorporating it into both their own conceptual schemes and
those of the subject involved. Svinicki suggests that instructors should model
and describe their own thinking as they work through problems, stress problem
solving and other activities that provide opportunities for practicing thought
processes, and even teach specific strategies when necessary. The teacher, as
the expert in a specific field, becomes a cognitive mentor and uses such
techniques to help students move from positions as novices in the discipline to
more seasoned practitioners. Teachers thus provide students with tools for
understanding and dealing with future, more complex material. Since efficient
problem-solving strategies enhance performance, the additional benefit is
motivational: it increases students' expectations for successful completion of
the work and strengthens their beliefs about their ability to do the work.

Learner-centered instruction is a term that refers to attending to a
learner's individual needs, differences, and abilities, as well as to sharing
responsibility for learning. Research by Paul Pintrich (1995) has established
that students who are able to control their own behavior, motivation, and
cognition are generally successful in college. Such students self-regulate their
learning in three ways. First, they exercise active control by monitoring what
they do, why they do it, and what happens - and then making adjustments. Second,
they have goals that mark desired performance levels and they use these when
deciding what adjustments to make. Third, they accept that the control must be
theirs rather than someone else's. These procedures revolve around the important
underlying concept that learners can exercise control and influence educational
outcomes, and that doing so has many benefits.

Collaborative learning is the practice of actively engaging learners
in joint discovery, analysis, and use of information. It has its roots in the
power of peer and other groups to influence the development of understandings,
values, and beliefs. From a pragmatic perspective, collaborative learning is
also a more representative model of contemporary practice in the working world.
In an interesting irony, however,
students who have been generally successful in teacher-centered models tend, at
first, to reject collaborative learning as an abdication of the
teacher's responsibility, assuming that the job of delivering content has been
transferred to other students. This is a misinterpretation of the purpose of
collaboration, and it poses an additional problem for teachers: planning and
structuring collaborative work so that learners' roles and responsibilities are
clear, and also making it apparent that the teacher is serving different, but
equally important roles as a resource, a guide, a mentor, an assessor, and any
of several other roles. Students are not expected to teach each other, they are
expected to work together to reach appropriate goals. The value of
self-regulated learning is apparent in this context. Well-constructed
collaborative work identifies learner responsibilities, sets goals, provides
learners with opportunities to consider the goals and to structure their own
efforts accordingly, and supports cooperative effort. Svinicki proposes the
following methods for promoting learner-centered instruction: (1) encourage
self-regulation; (2) use collaborative methods; (3) employ problem-solving
activities that connect content to real-world situations; and (4) provide models
of the processes, strategies, and habits of thought of the discipline being
taught.

Teaching and Its Outcomes

There is not sufficient space here to provide details of all the
relationships between various kinds of learning and teaching techniques. More
complete descriptions are available in Kenneth Feldman and Michael Paulsen's
1998 discussion of college teaching and learning and in How College Affects
Students (1991) by Pascarella and Terenzini. Some basic findings from that
work are extracted and outlined below, and the organization of the following
paragraphs follows that of the chapters in Pascarella and Terenzini's text.

For verbal, quantitative, and subject-matter learning, lecturing appears to
be a valuable method, particularly in learning material at the knowledge and
comprehension levels of the Bloom et al. taxonomy.
Individualized instruction in various forms seems reasonably effective in
teaching similar content. More sophisticated cognitive objectives and affective
objectives appear better learned when opportunities for interaction occur, as in
smaller classes and those that use discussion and active learning methods.
Collaborative learning also provides learners with numerous alternative
explanations that must be reconciled, and efforts in this direction support
achievement of both complex cognitive and affective objectives for learning
content material.

When general cognitive skills and intellectual growth are desired, a process
involving exploration of information, developing explanations, and reaching
generalizations is useful. Like the experiential model of David Kolb
(1984), this process is reiterative, and its strength is in the need for
learners to go beyond memorization of facts and into solving problems through
locating relevant information, testing possible theories, and arriving at
conclusions. The cognitive practice involved in such activities provides useful
training that can be transferred. Additionally, the need to discuss and debate
the merits of conflicting arguments provides opportunities to develop written
and spoken communication skills. Similar methods support intellectual growth,
critical thinking, and the ability to deal with conceptually complex issues.
However, a single course experience may not produce large effects; more time and
exposure are generally necessary.

The psychosocial changes described by Pascarella and Terenzini include
internal matters such as identity and self-esteem, as well as external factors
such as relationships with people and constructs in the outside world. In the
internal psychosocial realm, there do not seem to be many effects that can be
directly attributed to college teaching and learning, or even to the overall
college environment. One reason offered by Pascarella and Terenzini for the lack
of significant or important findings is the difficulty in measuring such
changes. Research lacks a generally accepted set of theories to guide the work,
and measurement itself is imprecise. They
also note the variety of college environments and the difficulty in generalizing
from data gathered across these environments. Another reason may be that
attending college does not guarantee a progressively positive set of
experiences. Academic difficulties can have large negative effects on
self-esteem, and research suggests that many students leave college because of a
sense of isolation and loneliness. Such negative outcomes can counterbalance the
positive effects of college, thus diminishing the overall strength of the
findings.

There are things that can be done to avoid such problems. Arthur Chickering
and Zelda Gamson (1987) developed a list of "Seven Principles for Good Practice
in Undergraduate Education." They suggest that instruction that encourages
social and academic interaction, cooperative efforts, active learning, regular
feedback, high expectations about both student effort and outcomes, and the
creation of respect and trust among individuals and groups are all critical to
success.

In terms of changes with respect to external factors, Pascarella and
Terenzini report general student gains in independence, nonauthoritarian
thinking, tolerance, intellectual orientation, maturity, personal adjustment
skills, and personal development. They note that "the largest freshman-senior
changes appear to be away from authoritarian,
dogmatic, and ethnocentric
thinking and behavior" (p. 257).

Teachers can do much to support the kinds of growth that have been found in
the external psychosocial area. The use of cooperative and collaborative methods
of teaching and learning supports the development of social skills and team
membership skills, and also exposes students to a variety of opinions and ideas.
Teachers can present diverse points of view and engage students in exploration,
analysis, and synthesis of these views. Indeed, most instruction that addresses
the upper levels of the Bloom taxonomy (i.e., analysis, synthesis, and
evaluation) requires students to weigh the merits of
alternative ideas and approaches, and to make evidence-based judgments. As
students move from entry-level courses through graduation and into graduate
education, there is an increasingly heavy stress on independent learning and the
development of the ability to carry out one's own analyses and arrive at one's
own conclusions. It is not surprising then, that one of the best-documented
effects of college is an increase in the internality of students' locus of
control. Locus is one aspect of attribution theory, and it refers to
the student's perception of the extent to which she or he has the power to
influence outcomes. Those students whose locus is more internal
(those who are generally successful) feel capable of exercising some control and
they take action to do so, while students who exhibit external tendencies are
generally less successful and have few feelings of power or the ability to
affect outcomes. They are often more passive and attribute their failures (and
sometimes, even their successes) to external factors such the skill of the
teacher, their classmates, course difficulty or simplicity, and even, to
luck.

As with external psychosocial factors, a number of attitudes and values seem
to change in college, and there seems a reasonable relationship between these
kinds of changes in terms of their nature as well as in the kinds of instruction
that can promote growth. Attitudinal changes occur in cultural, aesthetic, and
intellectual areas and are marked by greater sophistication and interest in
broader ranges of music, literature, philosophy, creative activities, history,
and the humanities. Other changes are found in educational and occupational
values, including such things as interest in a liberal education and the desire
for a fulfilling career. More change seems to occur in the early years of
college than does in the latter years. Programs and institutions that support
(particularly) younger learners from the outset - and that
combine sound instructional methods, the development of a sense of engagement in
an intellectual community, and readily available support services - create many
opportunities for success.

Insofar as moral development is concerned, attending college appears to
consistently promote growth in the direction of principled moral reasoning. This
growth takes place primarily in the early years of college and it is reflected
in both in-college and postgraduation behavior. Pascarella and Terenzini report
this change as one of the most prominent, but they also note that evidence of
change does not tell how or why such change takes place. There are some logical
connections to teaching strategies in this area, and they are similar to those
noted above. For example, use of the discussion method, collaborative learning,
peer review, and other techniques that require students to consider alternative
points of view and to reconcile
differences among these alternatives, can lead to more openness to new ideas,
more cultural sensitivity, and more awareness of social/ethical issues. Such
techniques can be used in many disciplines and are not limited to particular
courses dealing with moral reasoning, ethics, and related subjects. In these or
other courses, exposing students to real-world ethical issues and requiring them
to propose alternative solutions to problems using the perspectives of the
various stakeholders is one way to demonstrate the complexities of making such
decisions. Such an approach can also help expand the students' range of
understanding of differing points of view.

One of the advantages of higher education's emphasis on diversity and multicultural
issues is that the range of experiences and opinions available for discussion is
considerably broadened. This advantage relates to research findings that moral
reasoning does not develop as much, or as consistently, in contexts where there
is a high degree of similarity among students. Homogeneity tends to reduce the
conflicting opinions that are the basis for discussion and synthesis.

The Importance of Individual Differences and Motivation

Despite a great deal of discussion and the development of a large number of
schema and indicators
of individual difference, some caution is necessary when considering their
effects. Individual differences - such as general intelligence, affinity for
certain subjects, level of knowledge, prior training, personal experience, and
cultural and related differences - can be identified reasonably well and taken
into account. Other variables, however, are less understood and more difficult
to reconcile when instruction is designed. One area of debate is over that group
of differences known as teaching and learning styles.

While it is generally agreed that each person may have some unique
combinations of characteristics, and that certain of these characteristics can
be identified and categorized, it is dangerous to make simplistic
assumptions about style. Indeed, there are so many different classifications of
style and individual difference, that it is all too easy to assume unilateral
reliance on any one, or to attempt to include too many. Research suggests that
since most learners have a repertoire of styles, simply using a variety of
instructional methods will provide the majority with sufficient opportunities to
learn. While students may use some approaches more frequently than others, they
can adapt to new situations by using whatever alternative approaches seem most
suitable at the moment. It is those few learners who have limited repertoires
who have the greatest difficulty and for whom the greatest accommodations are
necessary. Useful interventions for these learners include individual
assistance, making instruction more concrete and relevant through relating
content to real-world situations or to their own experiences, explaining
processes for organizing content information, teaching general study skills as
well as specific problem-solving strategies, using frequent assessment
techniques, and providing regular feedback.

Motivation is a well-researched area, and though there are several
descriptions of the elements of motivation, these elements are quite similar.
Michael Theall's 1998 distillation of
thirteen motivational approaches resulted in a six-item conceptualization that
applies to higher education students and faculty. The elements were: inclusion,
attitude, meaning, competence, leadership, and satisfaction.
Of the models reviewed, one that can be directly connected to college teaching
is that of John Keller (1983). Keller proposed a model for the motivational
design of instruction. The model outlines a cycle of inputs, events, and
consequences that could result in positive or negative outcomes. Students and
teachers enter into a teaching-learning situation with sets of values and
expectations that affect the extent and nature of the effort they expend. Positive
attitudes (e.g., the student is interested in the subject; the teacher has done
research on the topic) and expectations (e.g., the students believe themselves
to be able in the content area; the teacher expects the course to be well
received) lead to greater effort, and effort directly affects performance.
Strong performance leads to both satisfaction (via the consequences of good
grades, the sense of a "job well done" and the recognition of effective
learning) and heightened value and expectations for the future (which further
motivate effort). However, in the negative direction, certain attitudes (e.g.,
the students do not want to take the class; the teacher is tired of teaching the
material) and expectations (e.g., a student's subject anxiety; the
teacher's concerns about the course) can diminish effort and lead to reduced
performance and disappointment, thus reinforcing negative attitudes and
expectations.

Raymond Wlodkowski (1998) stresses that intrinsic motivation is more
powerful that extrinsic motivation. In other words, the older view of
motivation as something that is done to someone is less relevant than the
understanding that success involves promoting or creating sets of conditions
under which the individual is the one who actually provides the motivation. A
typical case in college learning would be a teacher's creation of sets of
experiences that arouse the students'
interest and allow engagement in activities that both promote growth and provide
opportunities for success. In this scenario, satisfaction comes internally from
accomplishment, while grades are only a documentation of the learning and
satisfaction, rather than after-the-fact rewards that drive performance.

Determining Outcomes

The growth of both evaluation and assessment has been exponential, and with
this growth have come expectations that teachers and institutions will be able
to document their performance, and that of their students, in meaningful ways.
Classroom tests are no longer sufficient as evidence. Certification and
licensure are important in certain professional fields, but many disciplines do
not require such standardized demonstrations of learning, and many have
questioned even these more carefully constructed measures in terms of their
ability to truly describe learning.

Moreover, the interest of accrediting bodies is not only in what kinds of
data are collected in what ways, but also in what actions have been taken as a
result of assessments. In other words, assessment has become a process for
continuous revision and improvement. Assessment is concerned with the results of
teaching and the educational experience, and of determining as precisely as
possible what was learned. This role differs from that of evaluation, which is
more a process to determine merit or worth. Evaluation is a more global, formal,
quantitative, and occasional process, while assessment is often more narrow,
informal, qualitative, and
ongoing. This is because assessment's objectives are often at the level of the
individual learner and less amenable to social
science research methods that depend on samples of adequate size to allow statistical inference. Interestingly, both evaluation and
assessment use the terms formative, meaning a process for exploration,
revision, and improvement; and summative, meaning a process for
determining merit and making administrative decisions about people or
programs.

The most widely circulated and complete source of assessment information is
Classroom Assessment Techniques (1993) by Thomas Angelo and K. Patricia
Cross. This book contains numerous techniques for assessing learning in the
immediate context of the classroom, as well as in the broader context of the
full course, the college semester, and
beyond. In the 1990s, this work and the concurrent interest in Ernest Boyer's
conception of the scholarship of teaching led to the development of
methods for classroom research that are, according to Cross and Mimi Steadman
(1996), learner-centered, teacher-directed, collaborative, context-specific,
scholarly, practical/relevant, and continual. Very much like assessment in its
emphasis on learning, classroom research provided a bridge that connected
investigation of classroom learning with the more formal research that had
previously held exclusive rights to the term scholarship. In effect,
evaluation and assessment methods were blended to provide a vehicle for the
teacher-scholar to carry out the scholarship of teaching.

Adult Learning and the Growth of Technology

A new and unique set of circumstances arose during the 1990s due to the
increase in the number of adult learners and programs accessible at a distance.
Not only was this population of students very different from traditional,
residential students, but the contexts of teaching and learning were also markedly
different. Stephen Brookfield (1991) suggests six principles for effectively
working with adult learners:(1) voluntary participation and engagement by
learners; (2) respect among participants and acknowledgement of learners'
experiences and knowledge; (3) collaborative rather than directive facilitation
of learners' experiences; (4) praxis and constant
integration of activities into a unified whole; (5) critical reflection; and (6)
promoting self-directed efforts and a sense of empowerment.
But since the majority of adult learners are commuters or students taking
courses away from the traditional campus setting, the benefits of the
traditional communities of the college campus are not readily available to this
population, and opportunities for informal dialogue, for developing social
relationships, and for spending concentrated time on course requirements are
limited.

At the same time that these issues about new student populations were being
discussed, the rapid growth of distance education programs, especially courses
and curricula delivered entirely, or almost entirely, via the Internet, was
raising questions about how instruction could be delivered in a disembodied
form. Rena Palloff and Keith Pratt (2001) suggest that the following lessons
have been learned so far: (1) course development needs to focus on
interactivity, not content, because even if course content is known and
established, there remains the need to deliver it in ways that facilitate
learning; (2) faculty and student roles need to change, with less emphasis on
one-sided delivery and more on active and interactive modes; (3) faculty and
student training on the use of the technology, as well as the new modes of
instruction, is critical to success; (4) faculty and students need to have
substantial support networks throughout the course experience; (5) institutions
must develop strategic plans that go well beyond technological requirements and
deal with everything from pedagogical support to intellectual property rights;
(6) institutions must have tested and reliable infrastructure in place, and the
systems used should be accessible and usable; (7)
technologies should be chosen by teams of users, and choices should be based in
instructional as well as technical parameters.

Summary

Since 1970 there have been many changes in higher education - changes that
center on different student populations, different methods of delivering
instruction, and different conceptions of what a college education is and how it
should be pursued. This change process will continue, but despite dire
predictions that technology will replace the need for college campuses, it is
likely that the residential experience of undergraduate education and the
intensive nature of graduate training will continue to require opportunities for
interaction and apprenticeship that can only be provided on traditional
campuses.

Bibliography

Angelo, Thomas A., and Cross, K. Patricia. 1993. Classroom Assessment
Techniques: A Handbook for College Teachers, 2nd edition. San Francisco:
Jossey-Bass.

Bloom, Benjamin S.; Englehart, Max D.; Furst, Edward J.; Hill, Walter H.; and
Krathwohl, David R. 1956. Taxonomy of Education Objectives. New York:
David McKay.

Boyer, Ernest L. 1990. Scholarship Reconsidered: The Priorities of the
Professoriate. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Brookfield, Stephen. 1991. Understanding and Facilitating Adult
Learning. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Chickering, Arthur, and Gamson, Zelda. 1987. "Seven Principles of Good
Practice in Undergraduate Education." The Wingspread Journal 9 (2):1 -
11.

Cross, K. Patricia, and Steadman, Mimi H.
1996. Classroom Research: Implementing the Scholarship of Teaching. San
Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Feldman, Kenneth A. and Paulsen, Michael B. 1998. Teaching and Learning in
the College Classroom, 2nd edition. Needham Heights, MA: Simon and
Schuster.

Johnson, David; Johnson, Roger T.; and Holubec, Ernest. 1989. Cooperation
in the Classroom. Edina, MN: Interaction.

Keller, John M. 1983. "Motivational Design of Instruction." In
Instructional Design Theories and Models: An Overview of Their Current
Status. ed. Charles M. Riegeluth. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Kolb, David. 1984. Experiential Learning: Experience as the Source of
Learning and Development. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Mager, Robert, F. 1962. Preparing Instructional Objectives. Palo Alto,
CA: Fearon.

Palloff, Rena M., and Pratt, Keith. 2001. Lessons from the Cyberspace
Classroom: The Realities of Online Teaching. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Pascarella, Ernest, and Terenzini, Patrick. 1991. How College Affects
Students. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Pintrich, Paul R., ed. 1995. Understanding Self-Regulated Learning.
San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Scriven, Michael. 1967. "The Methodology of Evaluation." In Perspectives
of Curriculum Evaluation, ed. Ralph Tyler, Robert Gagne, and Michael
Scriven. Chicago: Rand McNally.

Skinner, B. F. 1953. Science and Human Behavior. New York: Free
Press.

Svinicki, Marilla. 1999. "New Directions in Learning and Motivation." In
Teaching and Learning on the Edge of the Millenium: Building on What We Have
Learned, ed. Marilla Svinicki. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Theall, Michael. 1998. "What Have We Learned: A Synthesis and Some
Guidelines." In Motivation from Within: Approaches for Encouraging Faculty
and Students to Excel, ed. Michael Theall. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Weiner, Bernard. 1986. An Attributional Theory of Motivation. New
York: Springer-Verlag.

Wlodkowski, Raymond. 1998. Enhancing Adult Motivation to Learn. San
Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

— JOSEPH P.
FARRELL

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