Politics

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v · d · e

Politics (from Greek πολιτικός,
"of, for, or relating to citizens"), is a process by which groups of people make
collective
decisions. The term is generally applied to the art or science of running
governmental or state affairs. It also refers to behavior within civil governments.
However, politics can be observed in other group interactions, including corporate,
academic, and
religious
institutions. It consists of "social relations involving authority or power"[1]
and refers to the regulation of public affairs within a political unit,[2]
and to the methods and tactics used to formulate and apply policy.[3]

Contents

1 Etymology

2 History

2.1 Native
Americans

2.2 Patriarchal
societies

2.3 The state

2.3.1 The state and
property

2.3.2 The state and the
justice system

2.3.3 The
state

2.3.4 The state and the
executive system

2.3.5 The varieties of
political experience

2.4 Political
party

3 As an academic
discipline

4 Spectra

4.1 Left-right
politics

4.2 Authoritarian-libertarian politics

4.3 World
politics

5 Political
corruption

6 See also

7 References

[edit]
Etymology

The word politics comes from the Greek word Πολιτικά
(politika), modeled on Aristotle's "affairs of the
city", the name of his book on governing and governments, which was rendered in
English mid-15 century as Latinized "Polettiques".[4]
Thus it became "politics" in Middle English c. 1520s
(see the Concise Oxford
Dictionary). The singular politic first attested in English 1430 and
comes from Middle French
politique, in turn from Latin politicus,[5]
which is the latinisation
of the Greek πολιτικός (politikos), meaning amongst others "of, for, or
relating to citizens", "civil", "civic", "belonging to the state",[6]
in turn from πολίτης (polites), "citizen"[7]
and that from πόλις (polis), "city".[8]

[edit]
History

The history of politics is reflected in the origin and development, and
economics of the institutions of government.

[edit]
Native Americans

Lewis H. Morgan, author
of Ancient Society,
considers the American
Indians to be the link between the primitive and patriarchal state of
society.[9]

[edit]
Patriarchal
societies

European
Parliament

All patriarchal societies are known by certain characteristic features:

Male kinship is prevalent. Men are counted as kin because they are
descended from the same male ancestor.

Marriage is permanent. It is not until one woman is married to one man
that certainty of fatherhood appears in society but it is not a general rule
of patriarchal society for polygamy does exist in the earlier stages of social
development.

Paternal authority is the ruling principle of the social order. In ancient
Rome, the patria potestas
extended to all descendants of one living male ancestor; it comprised control
and punishment, not to mention questions of life and death.

These features of the development of the patriarchal state of society are as
common among the Jews
as among the Arabs, among the Aryans as among the Dravidians and even among the
Germanic and Celtic peoples.

The patriarchal state of society consists of two stages, tribe and clan. The tribe is a large group of
hundreds of members who descend from one common male ancestor, sometimes from a
fictitious character satisfying the etiquette that descent from
the male is the only basis of society. The clan, on the other hand, is a smaller
group reaching back into the past for only four generations or so to a common
well-known male ancestor. The clan always breaks down into smaller units when
its limit is reached. According to the Scottish historian W. F.
Skene in volumen 3 of Celtic Scotland, the tribe or larger unit is
the oldest. When the tribe breaks down, clans are formed. When the clan system
breaks down, it leaves the households or families as independent units.
Finally, with the withering away of patriarchal society, the family is dissolved
and the individual comes into
existence.[10]

[edit]
The state

Main article: State
(polity)

Sun Tzu

The origin of the state is to be found in
the development of the art of warfare.
Historically speaking, there is not the slightest difficulty in proving that all
political communities of the modern type owe their existence to successful
warfare. As a result the new states are forced to organize on military
principles. The life of the new community is military allegiance. The military
by nature is competitive.[citation
needed]

Of the institutions by which the state is ruled, that of kingship stands
foremost until the French Revolution put an end to the "divine right of
kings". (In China, similarly there was the mandate of heaven) Nevertheless,
kingship is perhaps the most successful institution of politics. However, the
first kings were not institutions but individuals. The earliest kings were
successful militarily. They were men not only of great military genius but also
great administrators. Kingship becomes an institution through heredity.[citation
needed]

The king rules his kingdom with the aid of his Council; without it he
could not hold his territories. The Council is the king's master mind. The
Council is the germ of constitutional
government. Long before the council became a bulwark of democracy, it
rendered invaluable aid to the institution of kingship by:[citation
needed]

Preserving the institution of kingship through heredity.

Preserving the traditions of the social order.

Being able to withstand criticism as an impersonal authority.

Being able to manage a greater deal of knowledge and action than a single
individual such as the king.

The greatest of the king's subordinates, the earls in England and Scotland, the
dukes and counts in the
Continent, always sat as a right on the Council. A conqueror wages war upon the
vanquished for vengeance or for plunder but an established kingdom exacts tribute. One of
the functions of the Council is to keep the coffers of the king full. Another is
the satisfaction of military service and
the establishment of lordships by the king to
satisfy the task of collecting taxes and soldiers.[11]

[edit]
The state and
property

Property
is the right vested on the individual or a group of people to enjoy the benefits
of an object be it material or intellectual. A right is a power enforced by
public trust. Sometimes it happens that the exercise of a right is opposed to
public trust. Nevertheless, a right is really the creation of public trust,
past, present or future. The growth of knowledge is the key to the history of
property as an institution. The more man becomes knowledgeable of an object be
it physical or intellectual, the more it is appropriated. The appearance of the
State brought about the final stage in the evolution of property from wildlife
to husbandry. In the presence of the State, man can hold landed property. The
State began granting lordships and ended up conferring property and with it came
inheritance. With landed
property came rent and in the exchange of goods, profit, so that in modern
times, the "lord of the land" of long ago becomes the landlord. If it is wrongly
assumed that the value of land is always the same, then there is of course no
evolution of property whatever. However, the price of land goes up with every
increase in population benefitting the landlord. The landlordism of large land
owners has been the most rewarded of all political services. In industry, the
position of the landlord is less important but in towns which have grown out of
an industry, the fortunate landlord has reaped an enormous profit. Towards the
latter part of the Middle Ages in Europe, both the State - the State would use
the instrument of confiscation for the first
time to satisfy a debt - and the Church - the Church succeeded in acquiring
immense quantities of land - were allied against the village community to
displace the small landlord and they were successful to the extent that today,
the village has become the ideal of the individualist, a place in
which every man "does what he wills with his own." The State has been the most
important factor in the evolution of the institution of property be it public or
private.[12]

[edit]
The state and the
justice system

As a military institution, the State is concerned with the allegiance
of its subjects as disloyalty is a risk to its national security. Thus arises
the law of treason. Criminal acts in
general, breaking the peace and treason make up the whole of criminal
law enforced by the State as distinguished from the law enforced by private
individuals. State justice has taken the place of clan, feudal, merchant and
ecclesiastical justice due to its strength, skill and simplicity. One very
striking evidence of the superiority of the royal courts over the feudal and
popular courts in the matter of official skill is the fact that, until
comparatively late in history, the royal courts alone kept written records of
their proceedings. The trial by jury was adopted
by the Royal Courts, securing it's popularity and making it a bulwark of
liberty. By the time of the Protestant
Reformation, with the separation of Church and State, in the most
progressive countries, the State succeeded in dealing with the business of
administering justice.[13]

[edit]
The state

The making of laws was unknown to primitive societies.

That most persistent of all patriarchal societies, the Jewish, retains to a
certain extent its tribal law in the Gentile cities of the West. This
tribal law is the rudimentary idea of law as it presented itself to people in
the patriarchal stage of society, it was custom or observance sanctioned by the
approval and practice of ancestors.[citation
needed]

The state of affairs which existed in the 10th century, when every town had
its own laws and nations like France, Germany, Spain and other countries had no
national law until the end of the 18th century, was brought to an end by three
great agencies that helped to create the modern system of law and
legislation:[citation
needed]

Records: From the early Middle Ages in Europe there come what are
called folk-laws and they appear exactly at the time when the patriarchal is
becoming the State. They are due almost universally to one cause: the desire
of the king to know the custom of his subjects. These are not legislation in
the sense of law-making but statements or declarations of custom. They are
drawn from a knowledge of the custom of the people. Unwritten custom changes
imperceptibly but not the written. It is always possible to point to the exact
text and show what it says. Nevertheless, the written text can change by
addition with every new edition.

Law Courts: By taking some general rule which seemed to be common
to all the communities and ignoring the differences, English common law was
modeled after such a practice so that the law became common in all the
districts of the kingdom. The reason why in the rest of Europe, there was no
common law till centuries later is because the State in those countries did
not get hold of the administration of justice when England did. One of the
shrewdest moves by which the English judges pushed their plan of making a
common law was by limiting the verdict of the jury in every case to questions of fact.
At first the jury used to give answers both on law and fact; and being a
purely local body, they followed local custom. A famous division came to pass:
the province of the judge and the province of the jury.

Fictions: Records and Law Courts were valuable in helping the
people adapt to law-making but like Fictions, they were slow and imperfect.
Though slowly, Fictions work because it is a well known fact that people will
accept a change in the form of a fiction while they would resist it to the end
if the fact is out in the open.

British
parliament

Finally there is the enactment of laws or legislation. When progress and
development is rapid, the faster method of political
representation is adopted. This method does not originate in primitive
society but in the State need for money and its use of an assembly to raise the
same. From the town assembly, a national assembly and the progress of commerce
sprang Parliament all over Europe
around the end of the 12th century but not entirely representative or homogenous
for the nobility and the clergy. The clergy had amassed a fortune in land, about
one-fifth of all Christendom but at the time, in the 12th and 13th centuries,
the Church was following a policy of isolation; they adopted the rule of celibacy and cut
themselves from domestic life; they refused to plead in a secular court; they
refused to pay taxes to the State on the grounds that they had already paid it
to the Pope. Since
the main object of the king in holding a national assembly was to collect money,
the Church could not be left out and so they came to Parliament. The Church did
not like it but in most cases they had to come.[citation
needed]

The medieval Parliament was complete when it represented all the states in
the realm: nobles, clergy, peasants and craftsmen but it was not a popular
institution mainly because it meant taxation. Only by the strongest
pressure of the Crown were Parliaments maintained during the first century of
their existence and the best proof of this assertion lies in the fact that in
those countries where the Crown was weak, Parliament ceased to exist. The notion
that parliaments were the result of a democratic movement cannot be supported by
historical facts. Originally, the representative side of Parliament was solely
concerned with money; representation in Parliament was a liability rather than a
privilege. It is not uncommon that an institution created for one purpose begins
to serve another. People who were asked to contribute with large sums of money
began to petition. Pretty soon, sessions
in Parliament would turn into bargaining tables, the king granting petitions in
exchange for money. However, there were two kinds of petitions, one private and
the other public and it was from this last that laws were adopted or legislation originated. The
king as head of State could give orders to preserve territorial integrity but
not until these royal enactments were combined with public petition that
successful legislation ever took place. Even to the present day, this has always
been the basis of all successful legislation: public custom is adopted and
enforced by the State.[citation
needed]

In the early days of political representation, the majority did not necessarily
carry the day and there was very little need for contested elections but by the beginning
of the 15th century, a seat in Parliament was something to be cherished.
Historically speaking, the dogma of the equality of man is the result of the
adoption of the purely practical machinery of the majority but the adoption of
the majority principle is also responsible for another institution of modern
times: the party system. The party
system is an elaborate piece of machinery that pits at least two political
candidates against each other for the vote of an electorate; its advantage being
equal representation interesting a large number of people in politics; it
provides effective criticism of the government in power and it affords an outlet
for the ambition of a large number of wealthy and educated people guaranteeing a
consistent policy in government.[citation
needed]

These three institutions: political representation, majority rule and the
party system are the basic components of modern political machinery; they are
applicable to both central and local governments and are becoming by their
adaptability ends in themselves rather than a machinery to achieve some
purpose.[14]

[edit]
The state and the
executive system

The administration is one of the most difficult aspects of government. In the
enactment and enforcement of laws, the victory of the State is complete but not
so in regards to administration the reason being that it is easy to see the
advantage of the enactment and enforcement of laws but not the administration of
domestic, religious and business affairs which should be kept to a minimum by
government.[citation
needed]

Originally, the state was a military organization. For many years, it was
just a territory ruled by a king who was surrounded by a small elite group of
warriors and court officials and it was basically rule by force over a larger
mass of people. Slowly, however, the people gained political representation for
none can really be said to be a member of the State without the right of having
a voice in the direction of policy making. One of the basic functions of the
State in regards to administration is maintaining peace and internal order; it
has no other excuse for interfering in the lives of its citizens. To maintain
law and order the State develops means of communication.
Historically, the "king's highway" was laid down and maintained for the
convenience of the royal armies not as an incentive to commerce. In almost all
countries, the State maintains the control of the means of communication and
special freedoms such as those delineated in the First
Amendment to the United States Constitution are rather limited. The State's
original function of maintaining law and order within its borders gave rise to
police
administration which is a branch of the dispensation of Justice but on its preventive
side, police jurisdiction has a special character of its own, which
distinguishes it from ordinary judicial work. In the curfew, the State shows early in
history the importance of preventing disorder. In early days, next to
maintaining law and order, the State was concerned with the raising of revenue. It was
then useful to the State to establish a standard of weights and
measures so that value could be generally accepted and finally the State
acquired a monopoly of coinage. The regulation of labor by
the State as one of its functions dates from the 15th century, when the Black Plague killed
around half of the European population.[citation
needed]

The invariable policy of the State has always being to break down all
intermediate authorities and to deal directly with the individual. This was the
policy until Adam Smith's The Wealth of
Nations was published promoting a strong public reaction against State
interference. By its own action, the State raised the issue of the poor or the
State relief of the indigent. The State, of course,
did not create poverty but by destroying the chief agencies which dealt with it
such as the village, the church and the guilds, it practically assumed
full responsibility for the poor without exercising any power over it. The Great
Poor Law Report of 1834 showed that communism ran rampant in the
rural areas of England. In newly developed countries such as the colonies of the British Empire, the State
has refused to take responsibility for the poor and the relief of poverty,
although the poor classes lean heavily towards State socialism.[citation
needed]

Recognizing the great power of the State, it is only natural that in times of
great crisis such as an overwhelming calamity the people should invoke general
State aid.[citation
needed]

Political representation has helped to shape State administration. When the
voice of the individual can be heard, the danger of arbitrary interference by
the State is greatly reduced. To that extent is the increase of State activity
popular. There are no hard and fast rules to limit State administration but it
is a fallacy to believe that the State is the nation and what the State does is
necessarily for the good of the nation. In the first place, even in modern
times, the State and the nation are never identical. Even where "universal
suffrage" prevails, the fact remains that an extension of State administration
means an increased interference of some by others, limiting freedom of action.
Even if it is admitted that State and nation are one and the same, it is
sometimes difficult to admit that State administration is necessarily good.
Finally, the modern indiscriminate advocacy of State administration conceals the
fallacy that State officials must necessarily prove more effective in their
action than private enterprise.
Herein lies the basic difference between Public and Business
Administration; the first deals with the public weal while the second
deals basically in profit but both
require a great deal of education and ethical
conduct to avoid the mishaps inherent in the relationship not only of
business and labor but also the State and the Administration.[15]

[edit]
The varieties
of political experience

The swearing of the oath of ratification of the
treaty of Münster in 1648 (1648) by Gerard ter
Borch.

According to Aristotle, States are classified into monarchies,
aristocracies, timocracies,
democracies, oligarchies, and tyrannies. Due to an increase
in knowledge of the history of politics, this classification has been abandoned.
Generally speaking, no form of government could be considered the best if the
best is considered to be the one that is most appropriate under the
circumstances. All States are varieties of a single type, the sovereign State.
All the Great Powers of the modern
world rule on the principle of sovereignty. Sovereign power
may be vested on an individual as in an autocratic government or it may be
vested on a group as in a constitutional government. Constitutions are written
documents that specify and limit the powers of the different branches of
government. Although a Constitution is a written document, there is also an
unwritten Constitution. The unwritten constitution is continually being written
by the Legislative branch of government; this is just one of those cases in
which the nature of the circumstances determines the form of government that is
most appropriate. Nevertheless, the written constitution is essential. England
did set the fashion of written constitutions during the Civil War but after
the Restoration
abandoned them to be taken up later by the American Colonies
after their emancipation and then France after the Revolution and the
rest of Europe including the European colonies.[citation
needed]

There are two forms of government, one a strong central government as in
France and the other a local government such as the ancient divisions in England
that is comparatively weaker but less bureaucratic. These two forms helped to
shape the federal government,
first in Switzerland, then in the United States in 1776, in Canada in 1867 and
in Germany in 1870 and in the 20th century, Australia. The Federal States
introduced the new principle of agreement or contract. Compared to a federation,
a confederation's singular
weakness is that it lacks judicial power.[citation
needed] In the American Civil War,
the contention of the Confederate States that a State could secede from the
Union was untenable because of the power enjoyed by the Federal government in
the executive, legislative and judiciary branches.[citation
needed]

According to professor A. V. Dicey in An
Introduction to the Study of the Law of the Constitution, the essential
features of a federal constitution are: a) A written supreme constitution in
order to prevent disputes between the jurisdictions of the Federal and State
authorities; b) A distribution of power between the Federal and State
governments and c) A Supreme Court vested with the power to interpret the
Constitution and enforce the law of the land remaining independent of both the
executive and legislative branches.[16]

[edit]
Political party

Main article: political party

A political party is a political
organization that typically seeks to attain and maintain political power
within government, usually by
participating in electoral campaigns,
educational outreach or protest actions. Parties often espouse an expressed ideology or
vision bolstered by a written platform with specific
goals, forming a coalition among disparate
interests.[citation
needed]

[edit]
As an academic
discipline

Political science, the
study of politics, examines the acquisition and application of power.[17]
Related areas of study include political
philosophy, which seeks a rationale for politics and an ethic of public
behaviour, political economy,
which attempts to develop understandings of the relationships between politics
and the economy and the governance of the two, and public
administration, which examines the practices of governance.[citation
needed] The philosopher Charles Blattberg, who
has defined politics as "responding to conflict with dialogue," offers an
account which distinguishes political philosophies from political
ideologies.[18]

The first academic chair devoted to politics in the United States was the
chair of history and political science at Columbia University,
first occupied by Prussian émigré Francis Lieber in
1857.[19]

[edit]
Spectra

[edit]
Left-right politics

Main article: Left-Right
politics

Recently in history, political analysts and politicians divide politics into
left wing and right wing politics, often
also using the idea of center politics as a middle path of policy between the
right and left. This classification is comparatively recent (it was not used by
Aristotle
or Hobbes, for instance), and dates
from the French Revolution era,
when those members of the National Assembly who
supported the republic, the common people and
a secular society sat on
the left and supporters of the monarchy, aristocratic
privilege and the Church sat on the right.[20]

The meanings behind the labels have become more complicated over the years. A
particularly influential event was the publication of the Communist Manifesto
by Karl
Marx and Frederick Engels in
1848. The Manifesto suggested a course of action for a proletarian revolution to
overthrow the bourgeois society and
abolish private property, in the belief that this would lead to a classless and stateless
society.[citation
needed]

The meaning of left-wing and right-wing varies considerably between different
countries and at different times, but generally speaking, it can be said that
the right wing often values tradition and social
stratification while the left wing often values reform and egalitarianism, with the
center seeking a balance between the two such as with social democracy or regulated
capitalism.[citation
needed]

According to Norberto Bobbio, one of
the major exponents of this distinction, the Left believes in attempting to
eradicate social inequality, while the Right regards most social inequality as
the result of ineradicable natural inequalities, and sees attempts to enforce
social equality as utopian or authoritarian.[21]

Some ideologies, notably Christian Democracy,
claim to combine left and right wing politics; according to Geoffrey K. Roberts
and Patricia Hogwood, "In terms of ideology, Christian Democracy has
incorporated many of the views held by liberals, conservatives and socialists
within a wider framework of moral and Christian principles."[22]
Movements which claim or formerly claimed to be above the left-right divide
include Fascist Terza Posizione economic
politics in Italy, Gaullism in France, Peronism in
Argentina, and National
Action Politics in Mexico.[citation
needed]

[edit]
Authoritarian-libertarian politics

Authoritarianism and libertarianism refer to
the amount of individual freedom each person
possesses in that society relative to the state. One author describes
authoritarian political systems as those where "individual rights and goals are subjugated
to group goals, expectations and conformities",[23]
while libertarians generally oppose the state and hold the individual
and his property as sovereign. In their purest
form, libertarians are anarchists, who argue for the
total abolition of the state, while the purest authoritarians are totalitarians who
support state control over all aspects of society.[citation
needed]

For instance, classical
liberalism (also known as laissez-faire
liberalism,[24]
or, in much of the world, simply liberalism) is a doctrine stressing
individual freedom and limited government.
This includes the importance of human rationality, individual property rights, free
markets, natural rights, the
protection of civil liberties,
constitutional limitation of government, and individual freedom from restraint
as exemplified in the writings of John Locke, Adam
Smith, David Hume, David
Ricardo, Voltaire, Montesquieu and others.
According to the libertarian Institute for
Humane Studies, "the libertarian, or 'classical liberal,' perspective is
that individual well-being, prosperity, and social harmony are fostered by 'as
much liberty as possible' and 'as little government as necessary.'"[25]

[edit]
World politics

NYC UN

The 20th century witnessed the outcome of two world wars and not only the
rise and fall of the Third Reich but also the
rise and fall of communism. The development of
the Atomic bomb gave the United
States a more rapid end to its conflict in Japan in World War II. Later, the
development of the Hydrogen bomb became the
ultimate weapon of mass destruction. The United Nations has served
as a forum for peace in a world threatened by nuclear war. "The invention of
nuclear and space weapons has made war unacceptable as an instrument for
achieving political ends."[26]
Although an all-out final nuclear holocaust is out of the question for man, "nuclear blackmail"
comes into question not only on the issue of world peace but also on the issue
of national sovereignty.[27]
On a Sunday in 1962, the world stood still at the brink of nuclear war during
the October Cuban missile
crisis from the implementation of U.S. vs U.S.S.R. nuclear
blackmail policy.

[edit]
Political corruption

Main article: political
corruption

“

Unlimited power is apt to corrupt the minds of those who
possess it.

”

— William Pitt
the Elder[28]

Political corruption is the use of legislated powers by government
officials for illegitimate private gain. Misuse of government power for other
purposes, such as repression of
political opponents and general police brutality, is not considered political
corruption. Neither are illegal acts by private persons or corporations not
directly involved with the government. An illegal act by an officeholder
constitutes political corruption only if the act is directly related to their
official duties.[citation
needed]

Forms of corruption vary, but include bribery, extortion, cronyism, nepotism, patronage, graft, and embezzlement. While
corruption may facilitate criminal enterprise such
as drug trafficking, money laundering, and
trafficking, it is not
restricted to these activities.[citation
needed]

The activities that constitute illegal corruption differ depending on the
country or jurisdiction. For instance, certain political funding practices that
are legal in one place may be illegal in another. In some cases, government
officials have broad or poorly defined powers, which make it difficult to
distinguish between legal and illegal actions.[citation
needed]

Worldwide, bribery alone is estimated to involve over 1 trillion US dollars
annually.[29]
A state of unrestrained political corruption is known as a kleptocracy, literally
meaning "rule by thieves".[citation
needed]

"Favoritism is the only use of power." Richard L Kempe[citation
needed] "Politics is the art of creating situations involving the
threat of loss." Richard L Kempe[citation
needed]

[edit]
See also

Politics
portal

Book:
Politics

Wikipedia Books
are collections of articles that can be downloaded or ordered in
print.

Find more about
Politics on Wikipedia's sister
projects:

Definitions
from Wiktionary

Images
and media from Commons

Learning
resources from Wikiversity

News
stories from Wikinews

Quotations
from Wikiquote

Source
texts from Wikisource

Textbooks
from Wikibooks

Outline of
political science - structured list of political topics, arranged by
subject area

Index of
politics articles - alphabetical list of political subjects

Political lists -
lists of political topics

Politics of
present-day states

List of years in
politics

Outline of law

Index of law
articles

[edit]
References

^ "Definition of
politics". dict.die.net. http://dict.die.net/politics/.

^ "Politics
(definition)". everything2.co. http://everything2.com/index.pl?node_id=303454.

^
"Definition of
politics". thefreedictionary.com. http://www.thefreedictionary.com/politics.

^ "Politics". Online Etymology Dictionary. http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=politics.

^ Charlton T. Lewis, Charles Short. "A Latin Dictionary". Perseus Digital Library. http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0059%3Aentry%3Dpoliticus.

^ Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott. πολιτικός "A Greek-English Lexicon". Perseus Digital
Library. http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Dpolitiko%2Fs
πολιτικός.

^ Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott. πολίτης "A Greek-English Lexicon". Perseus Digital
Library. http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Dpoli%2Fths
πολίτης.

^ Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott. πόλις "A Greek-English Lexicon". Perseus Digital Library. http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Dpo%2Flis
πόλις.

^ Jenks, Edward (1900). A history of politics. J. M. Dent & Co..
pp. 6–15. http://books.google.com/?id=Z3gCAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA1&dq=politics+history#v=onepage&q=.
"In spite of the constantly increasing intercourse..."

^ Jenks, Edward. A history of politics.
pp. 16–72. "We now approach the consideration of the secong stage of
social development..."

^ Jenks, Edward. A history of politics.
pp. 73–96. "The origin of the State, or Political Society, is to be found
in the development of the art of military warfare."

^ Jenks, Edward. A history of politics.
pp. 97–111. "No political institution is of greater importance, none has
been the subject of greater controversy, than the institution of
property."

^ Jenks, Edward. A history of politics.
pp. 112–124. "We are so accustomed to look upon the administration of
justice as an inevitable duty of the State..."

^ Jenks, Edward. A history of politics.
pp. 124–139. "As we have before stated (p. 41), the notion that law could
be made was unknown to primitive society."

^ Jenks, Edward. A history of politics.
pp. 140–150. "We come now to the last, and by far the most difficult
department of State activity."

^ Jenks, Edward (1900). A history of politics. J. M. Dent & Co..
pp. 1–164. http://books.google.com/?id=Z3gCAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA1&dq=politics+history#v=onepage&q=.

^ Safire, William (2008). Safire's Political Dictionary. Oxford University Press
US. p. 566. ISBN 0195343342. http://books.google.com/?id=jK-0NPoMiYoC&pg=PA566&dq=power+corrupts+and+absolute+power+corrupts+absolutely#v=onepage&q=power%20corrupts%20and%20absolute%20power%20corrupts%20absolutely.
"Power tends to corrupt; absolute power corrupts absolutely."

^ Blattberg,
Charles, "Political Philosophies and Political Ideologies," in Patriotic
Elaborations: Essays in Practical Philosophy, Montreal and Kingston:
McGill-Queen's University Press, 2009.[1]

^ Farr, James; Seidelman, Raymond (1993). Discipline and history. University of Michigan Press.
ISBN 0472065127. http://books.google.com/?id=e9_jbbroRHsC&pg=PA70&dq=Discipline+and+history+Francis+Lieber+Karl+Marx&q=.
"...a chair at Columbia in 1857 as professor of history and political science,
the very first of its kind in America."

^
Andrew Knapp and Vincent Wright (2006). The
Government and Politics of France. Routledge.

^ Bobbio, Norberto,
"Left and Right: The Significance of a Political Distinction" (translated by
Allan Cameron), 1997, University of
Chicago Press. ISBN
0226062465

^ Roberts and
Hogwood, European Politics Today, Manchester
University Press, 1997

^ Markus Kemmelmeier et al. (2003). "Individualism,
Collectivism, and Authoritarianism in Seven Societies". Journal of
Cross-Cultural Psychology 34 (3): 304–322. doi:10.1177/0022022103034003005.

^ Ian
Adams, Political Ideology Today (Manchester: Manchester University
Press, 2001), 20.

^ What Is Libertarian?, Institute for Humane Studies

^ Rabinowitch, Eugene
(June 1973). Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists. Educational
Foundation for Nuclear Science, Inc.. p. 13. ISSN 0096-3402. http://books.google.com/?id=-QsAAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA13&dq=World+politics+final+nuclear+holocaust&q=World%20politics%20final%20nuclear%20holocaust.
"...the rationale of traditional patterns of world politics."

^ Dulles, Allen (2006). The Craft of Intelligence. Globe Pequot. p. 224.
ISBN 1592282975. http://books.google.com/?id=mH3qdHK6_EsC&pg=PA224&dq=the+craft+of+intelligence+April+1963#v=onepage&q=.
"...using "nuclear blackmail" as a threat to intimidate other
countries."

^ Safire's
political dictionary, by William Safire, 2008, Oxford University Press US,
pg 566

^ African corruption 'on the wane', 10 July 2007, BBC
News

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Politics
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List
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Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics"

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