Learning

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v • d • e

Learning is acquiring new knowledge, behaviors, skills, values, or
preferences and may involve
synthesizing different types of information. The ability to
learn is possessed by humans, animals and some machines. Progress over
time tends to follow learning curves.

Human learning may occur as part of education, personal
development, or training. It may be goal-oriented and may be
aided by motivation. The study of how
learning occurs is part of neuropsychology, educational
psychology, learning
theory, and pedagogy.

Learning may occur as a result of habituation or classical
conditioning, seen in many animal species, or as a result of more complex
activities such as play, seen only in
relatively intelligent animals.[1][2]
Learning may occur consciously or without
conscious awareness. There is evidence for human behavioral learning prenatally, in which habituation has been
observed as early as 32 weeks into gestation, indicating that the
central nervous
system is sufficiently developed and primed for learning and memory to occur
very early on in development.[3]

Play has been approached by several theorists as the first form of learning.
Children play, experiment with the world, learn the rules, and learn to
interact. Vygotsky agrees that play is
pivotal for children's development, since they make meaning of their environment
through play.

While this article describes the different environments in which learning
happens, there seems as yet to be no description of how a collection of neurons
learns nor where, exactly, in this collection of neurons "memory" is
located.

Contents

1 Types of
learning

1.1 Simple non-associative
learning

1.1.1 Habituation

1.1.2 Sensitization

1.2 Associative
learning

1.2.1 Classical
conditioning

1.3 Imprinting

1.4 Observational
learning

1.5 Play

1.6 Enculturation

1.7 Multimedia
learning

1.8 E-learning and
augmented learning

1.9 Rote
learning

1.10 Informal
learning

1.11 Formal
learning

1.12 Nonformal
learning

1.13 Nonformal learning and
combined approaches

1.14 Tangential
learning

1.15 Dialogic
learning

2 Domains of
learning

3 Mathematical models of
learning

4 See also

5 Notes

6 Other references

[edit]
Types of learning

Training meeting about sustainable design.
The photo shows a training meeting with factory workers in a stainless steel ecodesign
company from Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. A type of
learning very used in corporations around the world.

[edit]
Simple
non-associative learning

[edit]
Habituation

Main article: Habituation

In psychology, habituation is an example of non-associative learning in which
there is a progressive diminution of behavioral response probability
with repetition stimulus. An animal first
responds to a stimulus, but if it is neither rewarding nor harmful the animal
reduces subsequent responses. One example of this can be seen in small song
birds—if a stuffed owl
(or similar predator) is put into the cage,
the birds initially react to it as though it were a real predator. Soon the
birds react less, showing habituation. If another stuffed owl is introduced (or
the same one removed and re-introduced), the birds react to it again as though
it were a predator, demonstrating that it is only a very specific stimulus that
is habituated to (namely, one particular unmoving owl in one place). Habituation
has been shown in essentially every species of animal, including the large
protozoan Stentor
coeruleus.[4]

[edit]
Sensitization

Main article: Sensitization

Sensitization is an example of non-associative learning in which the
progressive amplification of a response follows repeated administrations of a stimulus
(Bell et al., 1995). An everyday example of this mechanism is the repeated tonic
stimulation of peripheral nerves that will occur if a person rubs his arm
continuously. After a while, this stimulation will create a warm sensation that
will eventually turn painful. The pain is the result of the progressively
amplified synaptic response of the peripheral nerves warning the person that the
stimulation is harmful. Sensitization is thought to underlie both adaptive as
well as maladaptive learning processes in the organism.

[edit]
Associative learning

Associative learning is the process by which an element is taught through
association with a separate, pre-occurring element. It is also referred to as
classical conditioning. Honeybees display associative learning through the proboscis
extension reflex paradigm[5].

Operant conditioning is the use of consequences to modify the occurrence and
form of behavior. Operant conditioning is distinguished from Pavlovian
conditioning in that operant conditioning uses reinforcement/punishment
to alter an action-outcome association. In contrast Pavlovian conditioning
involves strengthening of the stimulus-outcome association.

Behaviorism is a psychological movement that seeks to alter behavior by
arranging the environment to elicit successful changes and to arrange
consequences to maintain or diminish a behavior. Behaviorists study behaviors
that can be measured and changed by the environment. However, they do not
eliminate that there are thought processes that interact with those behaviors
(see Relational Frame
Theory for more information).

Delayed discounting is the process of devaluing rewards based on the delay of
time they are presented. This process is thought to be tied to impulsivity.
Impulsivity is a core process for many behaviors (e.g., substance abuse,
problematic gambling, OCD). Making decisions is an important part of everyday
functioning. How we make those decisions is based on what we perceive to be the
most valuable or worthwhile actions. This is determined by what we find to be
the most reinforcing stimuli. So when teaching an individual a response, you
need to find the most potent reinforcer for that person. This may be a larger
reinforcer at a later time or a smaller immediate reinforcer.

[edit]
Classical
conditioning

Main article: Classical
conditioning

The typical paradigm for classical conditioning involves repeatedly pairing
an unconditioned stimulus (which unfailingly evokes a reflexive response) with
another previously neutral stimulus (which does not normally evoke the
response). Following conditioning, the response occurs both to the unconditioned
stimulus and to the other, unrelated stimulus (now referred to as the
"conditioned stimulus"). The response to the conditioned stimulus is termed a
conditioned response. The classic example is Pavlov and his dogs. Meat
powder naturally will make a dog salivate when it is put into a dog's mouth;
salivating is a reflexive response to the meat powder. Meat powder is the
unconditioned stimulus (US) and the salivation is the unconditioned response
(UR). Then Pavlov rang a bell before presenting the meat powder. The first time
Pavlov rang the bell, the neutral stimulus, the dogs did not salivate, but once
he put the meat powder in their mouths they began to salivate. After numerous
pairings of the bell, and then food the dogs learned that the bell was a signal
that the food was about to come and began to salivate just when the bell was
rang. Once this occurs the bell becomes the conditioned stimulus (CS) and the
salivation to the bell is the conditioned response (CR).

Another influential person in the world of Classical Conditioning is John B.
Watson. Watson's work was very influential and paved the way for B. F. Skinner's
radical behaviorism. Watson's behaviorism (and philosophy of science) stood in
direct contrast to Freud. Watson's view was that Freud's introspective method
was too subjective, and that we should limit the study of human development to
directly observable behaviors. In 1913, Watson published the article "Psychology
as the Behaviorist Views," in which he argued that laboratory studies should
serve psychology best as a science. Watson's most famous, and controversial,
experiment, "Little Albert," where he demonstrated how psychologists can account
for the learning of emotion through classical conditioning principles.

[edit]
Imprinting

Main article: Imprinting
(psychology)

Imprinting is the term used in psychology and ethology to
describe any kind of phase-sensitive learning (learning occurring at a
particular age or a particular life stage) that is rapid and apparently
independent of the consequences of behavior. It was first used to describe
situations in which an animal or person learns the characteristics of some
stimulus, which is therefore said to be "imprinted" onto the subject.

[edit]
Observational
learning

Main article: Observational
learning

The learning process most characteristic of humans is imitation; one's
personal repetition of an observed
behavior, such as a dance. Humans can copy three types
of information simultaneously: the demonstrator's goals, actions, and
environmental outcomes (results, see Emulation
(observational learning)). Through copying these types of information,
(most) infants will tune into their surrounding culture.

[edit]
Play

Main article: Play
(activity)

Play generally describes behavior which has no particular end in itself, but
improves performance in similar situations in the future. This is seen in a wide
variety of vertebrates besides humans, but is mostly limited to mammals and birds. Cats are known to play with
a ball of string when young, which gives them experience with catching prey.
Besides inanimate objects, animals may play with other members of their own
species or other animals, such as orcas playing with seals they have
caught. Play involves a significant cost to animals, such as increased
vulnerability to predators and the risk of injury and possibly infection. It
also consumes energy, so there must be
significant benefits associated with play for it to have evolved. Play is
generally seen in younger animals, suggesting a link with learning. However, it
may also have other benefits not associated directly with learning, for example
improving physical fitness.

[edit]
Enculturation

Enculturation is the
process by which a person learns the requirements of their native culture by
which he or she is surrounded, and acquires values and behaviors that are
appropriate or necessary in that culture.[6]
The influences which as part of this process limit, direct or shape the
individual, whether deliberately or not, include parents, other adults, and
peers.[6]
If successful, enculturation results in competence in the language, values and
rituals of the culture.[6]
(compare acculturation, where a
person is within a culture different to their normal culture, and learns the
requirements of this different culture).

[edit]
Multimedia learning

Multimedia learning
is where a person uses both auditory and visual stimuli to learn information (Mayer 2001).
This type of learning relies on dual-coding theory
(Paivio
1971).

[edit]
E-learning and
augmented learning

Electronic learning
or e-learning is a general term used to refer to Internet-based networked
computer-enhanced learning. A specific and always more diffused e-learning is mobile learning
(m-learning), which uses different mobile telecommunication equipment, such as
cellular phones.

When a learner interacts with the e-learning environment, it's called augmented learning.
By adapting to the needs of individuals, the context-driven instruction can be
dynamically tailored to the learner's natural environment. Augmented digital
content may include text, images, video, audio (music and voice). By
personalizing instruction, augmented learning has been shown to improve learning
performance for a lifetime.[7]

[edit]
Rote learning

Main article: Rote
learning

Rote learning is a technique which avoids understanding the inner
complexities and inferences of the subject that is being learned and instead
focuses on memorizing the material so
that it can be recalled by the learner
exactly the way it was read or heard. The major practice involved in rote
learning techniques is learning by repetition, based on the idea that one
will be able to quickly recall the meaning of the material the more it is
repeated. Rote learning is used in diverse areas, from mathematics to music to
religion. Although it has been criticized by some schools of thought, rote
learning is a necessity in many situations.

[edit]
Informal learning

Main article: Informal
learning

Informal learning occurs through the experience of day-to-day situations (for
example, one would learn to look ahead while walking because of the danger
inherent in not paying attention to where one is going). It is learning from
life, during a meal at table with parents, play, exploring,
etc.

[edit]
Formal learning

Main article: Education

A depiction of the world's oldest continually
operating university, the University of
Bologna, Italy

Formal learning is learning that takes place within a teacher-student
relationship, such as in a school system.

[edit]
Nonformal learning

Main article: Nonformal
learning

Nonformal learning is organized learning outside the formal learning system.
For example: learning by coming together with people with similar interests and
exchanging viewpoints, in clubs or in (international) youth organizations,
workshops.

[edit]
Nonformal
learning and combined approaches

The educational system may use a combination of formal, informal, and
nonformal learning methods. The UN and EU recognize these different forms of
learning (cf. links below). In some schools students can get points that count
in the formal-learning systems if they get work done in informal-learning
circuits. They may be given time to assist international youth workshops and
training courses, on the condition they prepare, contribute, share and can proof
this offered valuable new insight, helped to acquire new skills, a place to get
experience in organizing, teaching, etc.

In order to learn a skill, such as solving a Rubik's
cube quickly, several factors come into play at once:

Directions help one learn the patterns of solving a Rubik's cube.

Practicing the moves repeatedly and for extended time helps with "muscle
memory" and therefore speed.

Thinking critically about moves helps find shortcuts, which in turn helps
to speed up future attempts.

The Rubik's cube's six colors help anchor solving it within the head.

Occasionally revisiting the cube helps prevent negative learning or loss
of skill.

[edit]
Tangential learning

Tangential learning is the process by which some portion of people will
self-educate if a topic is exposed to them in something that they already enjoy
such as playing a musical instrument.

[edit]
Dialogic learning

Main article: Dialogic
learning

Dialogic learning is a type of learning based on dialogue.

[edit]
Domains of learning

Benjamin Bloom has
suggested three domains of learning:

Cognitive – To recall,
calculate, discuss, analyze, problem solve, etc.

Psychomotor – To dance,
swim, ski, dive, drive a car, ride a bike, etc.

Affective – To like
something or someone, love, appreciate, fear, hate, worship, etc.

These domains are not mutually exclusive. For example, in learning to play chess, the person will
have to learn the rules of the game (cognitive domain); but he also has to learn
how to set up the chess pieces on the chessboard and also how to properly hold
and move a chess piece (psychomotor). Furthermore, later in the game the person
may even learn to love the game itself, value its applications in life, and
appreciate its history (affective
domain).[8]

[edit]
Mathematical models
of learning

For mathematical models of learning, see:

Fadul, J. "Mathematical Formulations of Learning: Based on Ten Learning
Principles" International Journal of Learning. Volume 13 (2006)
Issue 6. pp. 139–152.

deFigueiredo, R.J.P. Mathematical formulation of cognitive and learning processes in
neural networks, 1990

[edit]
See also

Animal
cognition

Aptitude

Developmental
Psychology

History of
education

Intelligence

Learning
disability

Learning speed

Open learning

Implicit
learning

Machine
learning

Malleable
intelligence

Organizational
learning

Pedagogy

Reasoning

Sequence
learning

Sleep and
learning

Study skills

Team-based
learning

Ubiquitous
learning

[edit]
Notes

^ Jungle Gyms: The Evolution of Animal Play

^ What behavior can we expect of octopuses?

^ Sandman,
Wadhwa, Hetrick, Porto & Peeke. (1997). Human fetal heart rate
dishabituation between thirty and thirty-two weeks gestation. Child
Development, 68, 1031–1040.

^
Wood, D.C. (1988). Habituation in Stentor produced by mechanoreceptor
channel modification. Journal of Neuroscience, 2254 (8).

^
Bitterman et al. 1983. Classical Conditioning of Proboscis Extension in
Honeybees (Apis mellifera). J. Comp. Psych. 97: 107-119.

^ a
b
c
Grusec, Joan E.; Hastings, Paul D. "Handbook of Socialization: Theory and
Research", 2007, Guilford Press; ISBN
1-59385-332-7, 9781593853327; at page 547.

^
Augmented Learning, Augmented Learning: Context-Aware Mobile
Augmented Reality Architecture for Learning

^ Bloom's Taxonomy of Learning

[edit]
Other references

Vosniadou, Stella. How Children Learn. UK: UNESCO.
http://www.ibe.unesco.org/publications/EducationalPracticesSeriesPdf/prac07e.pdf.

Holt, John (1983). How Children Learn. UK: Penguin Books. ISBN 0140225706. http://books.google.fr/books?id=glEiAAAAMAAJ.

Mayer, R.E. (2001). Multimedia learning. New York: Cambridge University
Press. ISBN 0-52178-749-1. http://books.google.com/books?id=ymJ9o-w_6WEC.

Paivio, A. (1971). Imagery and verbal processes. New York: Holt,
Rinehart, and Winston. http://books.google.com/books?id=xmB9AAAAMAAJ.

v • d • e

Mental
processes

Cognition

Awareness · Cognitive
dissonance · Comprehension · Consciousness · Imagination · Intuition

Perception

Amodal
perception · Color
perception · Depth
perception · Visual
perception · Form
perception · Haptic
perception · Speech
perception · Perception
as Interpretation · Numeric Value of
Perception · Pitch
perception · Harmonic
perception · Rhythmic
perception

Other

Higher
nervous activity ·
Intention · Learning (Memory) · Mental
fatigue · Thinking · Volition

M:
PSO/PSI

mepr

dsrd
(o,
p,
m,
p,
a,
d,
s),
sysi/epon,
spvo

proc,
drug(N5A/5B/5C/6A/6B/6D)

v • d • e

Learning

Simple
non-associative learning

Habituation · Sensitization

Associative
learning

Operant
conditioning · Classical
conditioning · Imprinting · Observational
learning

Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learning"

Categories: Learning |
Neuropsychological
assessment | Cognitive
science | Intelligence
| Educational
psychology | Developmental
psychology | Systems
science

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