Education in India

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation,
search

It has been suggested that Private
school (India and Sri Lanka) be merged into this
article or section. (Discuss)

This article is outdated. Please update this
article to reflect recent events or newly available information. Please
see the talk page
for more information. (April
2010)

Education in Republic of
India

Indian
Department of Education

Ministry
of Human Resource Development

Kapil Sibal

National education budget
(2010)

Budget:

31,036 crore (US$ 7.05
billion) (2009-10)

General Details

Primary Languages:

Hindi, English, or State
language

System Type:

Federal, state, private

Literacy (2001[1])

Total:

66%

Male:

76.9%

Female:

54.5%

Enrollment ((N/A))

Total:

(N/A)

Primary:

(N/A)

Secondary:

(N/A)

Post Secondary:

(N/A)

Attainment

Secondary
diploma

15%

Post-secondary
diploma

7%

v • d • e

Education in India is mainly provided by the public
sector, with control and funding coming from three levels: federal, state, and local. Child education
is compulsory. The Nalanda University
was the oldest university-system of education in the world. Western education
became ingrained into Indian society with the establishment of the British
Raj. Education in India falls under the
control of both the Union Government and
the states,
with some responsibilities lying with the Union and the states having autonomy
for others. The various articles of the Indian Constitution
provide for education as a fundamental right. Most universities in India are
Union or State Government controlled.

India has made a huge progress in terms of increasing primary education
attendance rate and expanding literacy to
approximately two thirds of the population.[2]
India's improved education system is often cited as one of the main contributors
to the economic rise
of India.[3]
Much of the progress in education has been credited to various private
institutions.[4]
The private education market in India is estimated to be worth $40 billion in
2008 and will increase to $68 billion by 2012.[4]
However, India continues to face stern challenges. Despite growing investment in
education, 35% of its population is still illiterate; only 15% of Indian
students reach high school, and just 7% graduate.[5].
As of 2008, India's post-secondary high schools offer only enough seats for 7%
of India's college-age population, 25% of teaching positions nationwide are
vacant, and 57% of college professors lack either a master's or PhD degree.[6]
As of 2007[update], there are 1522 degree-granting engineering
colleges in India with an annual student intake of 582,000,[7]
plus 1,244 polytechnics with an annual intake of 265,000. However, these
institutions face shortage of faculty and concerns have been raised over the
quality of education.[8]

Contents

1 History

2 Overview

2.1 Primary
education

2.1.1 Private
education

2.1.2 Homeschooling

2.2 Secondary
education

2.3 Higher
education

2.4 Technical
education

3 Literacy

4 Attainment

5 Women's
education

6 Rural
education

7 Issues

7.1 Funding and
infrastructure

7.2 Curriculum
issues

7.3 Controversy

8 Initiatives

9 Central government
involvement

9.1 Budget

9.2 Public Expenditure on
Education in India

9.3 Legislative
framework

10 See also

11 Notes

12 References

13 External
links

[edit]
History

Monastic orders of education under the supervision of a guru was a favored
form of education for the nobility in ancient India.[9]
The knowledge in these orders was often related to the tasks a section of the
society had to perform.[10]
The priest class, the Brahmins, were imparted
knowledge of religion, philosophy, and other ancillary branches while the
warrior class, the Kshatriya, were trained in
the various aspects of warfare.[10]
The business class, the Vaishya, were taught their
trade and the lowered class of the Shudras was generally
deprived of educational advantages.[10]
The book of laws, the Manusmriti, and the
treatise on statecraft the Arthashastra were among
the influential works of this era which reflect the outlook and understanding of
the world at the time.[10]

Apart from the monastic orders, institutions of higher learning and
universities flourished in India well before the common era, and continued to
deliver education into the common era.[11]
Secular Buddhist institutions cropped
up along with monasteries.[10]
These institutions imparted practical education, e.g. medicine.[10]
A number of urban learning centres became increasingly visible from the period
between 200 BCE to 400 CE.[12]
The important urban centres of learning were Taxila and Nalanda, among others.[12]
These institutions systematically imparted knowledge and attracted a number of
foreign students to study topics such as logic, grammar, medicine, metaphysics,
arts and crafts.[12]

By the time of the visit of the Islamic scholar Alberuni
(973-1048 CE), India already had a sophisticated system of mathematics and
science in place, and had made a number of inventions
and discoveries.[13]

With the arrival of the British Raj in India a class
of Westernized elite was versed in the Western system of education which the
British had introduced.[14]
This system soon became solidified in India as a number of primary, secondary,
and tertiary centres for education cropped up during the colonial era.[14]
Between 1867 and 1941 the British increased the percentage of the population in
Primary and Secondary Education
from around 0.6% of the population in 1867 to over 3.5% of the population in
1941. However this was much lower than the equivalent figures for Europe where in 1911
between 8 and 18% of the population were in Primary and Secondary education.[15]
Additionally literacy was also improved. In 1901 the literacy rate in India was
only about 5% though by Independence it was nearly 20%.[16]

Following independence in 1947, Maulana Azad, India's first
education minister envisaged strong central government control over education
throughout the country, with a uniform educational system.[17]
However, given the cultural and linguistic
diversity of India, it was only the higher education dealing with science
and technology that came under the jurisdiction of the central government.[17]
The government also held powers to make national policies for educational
development and could regulate selected aspects of education throughout
India.[18]

The central government of India formulated the National Policy
on Education (NPE) in 1986 and also reinforced the Programme of Action (POA)
in 1986.[19]
The government initiated several measures the launching of DPEP (District
Primary Education Programme) and SSA (Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan,[20]
India's initiative for Education for All) and setting up of Navodaya
Vidyalaya and other selective schools in every district, advances in
female education, inter-disciplinary research and establishment of open
universities. India's NPE also contains the National System of Education, which
ensures some uniformity while taking into account regional education needs. The
NPE also stresses on higher spending on education, envisaging a budget of more
than 6% of the Gross Domestic Product.[19]
While the need for wider reform in the primary and secondary sectors is
recognized as an issue, the emphasis is also on the development of science and
technology education infrastructure.

[edit]
Overview

The National
Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT) is the apex body for
curriculum related matters for school education in India.[21]
The NCERT provides support and technical assistance to a number of schools in
India and oversees many aspects of enforcement of education policies.[22]
In India, the various curriculum bodies governing school education system
are:

The state government boards, in which the majority of Indian children are
enrolled.

The Central Board of Secondary Education
(CBSE) board.

The Council for the Indian School
Certificate Examinations (CISCE) board.

The National Institute of Open Schooling
(NIOS) board.

International schools affiliated to the International
Baccalaureate Programme and/or the Cambridge
International Examinations.

Islamic Madrasah schools, whose
boards are controlled by local state governments, or autonomous, or affiliated
with Darul Uloom
Deoband.

Autonomous schools like Woodstock School, Auroville, Patha Bhavan
and Ananda Marga
Gurukula.

In addition, NUEPA (National University of Educational Planning and
Administration)[23]
and NCTE (National Council for Teacher Education) are responsible for the
management of the education system and teacher accreditation.[24]

[edit]
Primary education

The Indian government lays emphasis to primary education up
to the age of fourteen years (referred to as Elementary Education in India.[25])
The Indian government has also banned child labour in order to ensure that the
children do not enter unsafe working conditions.[25]
However, both free education and the ban on child labour are difficult to
enforce due to economic disparity and social conditions.[25]
80% of all recognized schools at the Elementary Stage are government run or
supported, making it the largest provider of education in the Country.[26]
However, due to shortage of resources and lack of political will, this system
suffers from massive gaps including high pupil teacher ratios, shortage of
infrastructure and poor level of teacher training. Education has also been made
free[25]
for children for 6 to 14 years of age or up to class VIII under the Right of
Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act 2009.[27]

There have been several efforts to enhance quality made by the government.
The District Primary Education Programme (DPEP) was launched in 1994 with an aim
to universalize primary education in India by reforming and vitalizing the
existing primary education system.[28]
85% of the DPEP was funded by the central government and the remaining 15
percent was funded by the states.[28]
The DPEP, which had opened 160000 new schools including 84000 alternative
education schools delivering alternative education to approximately 3.5 million
children, was also supported by UNICEF and other international programmes.[28]
This primary education scheme has also shown a high Gross Enrollment Ratio of
93–95% for the last three years in some states.[28]
Significant improvement in staffing and enrollment of girls has also been made
as a part of this scheme.[28]
The current scheme for universalization of Education for All is the Sarva Shiksha
Abhiyan which is one of the largest education initiatives in the world.
Enrollment has been enhanced, but the levels of quality remain low.

[edit]
Private education

According to current estimates, 80% of all schools are government schools[26]
making the government the major provider of education. However, because of poor
quality of public education, 27% of Indian children are privately educated.[29]
According to some research, private schools often provide superior results at a
fraction of the unit cost of government schools.[30][31][32]
However, others have suggested that private schools fail to provide education to
the poorest families, a selective being only a fifth of the schools and have in
the past ignored Court orders for their regulation.[33]
In their favour, it has been pointed out that private schools cover the entire
curriculum and offer extra-curricular activities such as science fairs, general
knowledge, sports, music and drama.[29]
The pupil teacher ratios are much better in private schools (1:31 to 1:37 for
government schools and more teachers in private schools are female.[34]
There is some disgreement over which system has better educated teachers.
According to the latest DISE survey, the percentage of untrained teachers
(paratechers) is 54.91% in private, compared to 44.88% in government schools and
only 2.32% teachers in unaided schools receive inservice training compared to
43.44% for government schools. The competition in the school market is intense,
yet most schools make profit.[29]

Even the poorest often go to private schools despite the fact that government
schools are free. A study found that 65% of schoolchildren in Hyderabad's slums
attend private schools.[32]

Private schools are often operating illegally. A 2001 study found that it
takes 14 different licenses from four different authorities to open a private
school in New Delhi and could take years if done legally.[32]
However, operation of unrecognized schools has been made illegal under the Right
of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act[27]
which has also significantly simplified the process of obtaining
recognition.

[edit]
Homeschooling

Homeschooling is legal in
India, though it is the less explored option. The Indian Government's stance
on the issue is that parents are free to teach their children at home, if they
wish to and have the means. HRD Minister Kapil Sibal has stated that despite the
RTE Act of 2009, if someone decides not to send his/her children to school, the
government would not interfere.[35]

[edit]
Secondary education

The National Policy on Education (NPE), 1986, has provided for environment
awareness, science and technology education, and introduction of traditional
elements such as Yoga
into the Indian secondary school system.[36]
Secondary education covers children 14-18 which covers 88.5 million children
according to the Census, 2001. However, enrolment figures show that only 31
million of these children were attending schools in 2001-02, which means that
two-third of the population remained out of school.[37]
A significant feature of India's secondary school system
is the emphasis on inclusion of the disadvantaged sections of the society.
Professionals from established institutes are often called to support in
vocational training. Another feature of India's secondary school system is its
emphasis on profession based vocational training to help students attain skills
for finding a vocation of his/her choosing.[38]
A significant new feature has been the extension of SSA to secondary education
in the form of the Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan[39]

A special Integrated Education for Disabled Children (IEDC) programme was
started in 1974 with a focus on primary education.[21]
but which was converted into Inclusive Education at Secondary Stage[40]
Another notable special programme, the Kendriya
Vidyalaya project, was started for the employees of the central
government of India, who are distributed throughout the country. The government
started the Kendriya Vidyalaya project in 1965 to provide uniform
education in institutions following the same syllabus at the same pace
regardless of the location to which the employee's family has been
transferred.[21]

A multilingual web portal on Primary Education is available with rich
multimedia content for children and forums to discuss on the Educational issues.
India Development Gateway [41]
is a nation wide initiative that seeks to facilitate rural empowerment through
provision of responsive information, products and services in local
languages.

[edit]
Higher education

Main article: higher education
in India

Our university system is, in many parts, in a state of disrepair...In
almost half the districts in the country, higher education enrollments are
abysmally low, almost two-third of our universities and 90 per cent of our
colleges are rated as below average on quality parameters... I am concerned
that in many states university appointments, including that of
vice-chancellors, have been politicised and have become subject to caste and
communal considerations, there are complaints of favouritism and
corruption.

– Prime Minister Manmohan Singh in
2007[42]

Indian
Institute of Management, Ahmedabad.

India's higher education system is the third largest in the world, after China and the United
States.[43]
The main governing body at the tertiary level is the University
Grants Commission (India), which enforces its standards, advises the
government, and helps coordinate between the centre and the state.[44]
Accreditation for higher learning is overseen by 12 autonomous institutions
established by the University
Grants Commission.[45]

As of 2009, India has 20 central universities, 215 state universities, 100
deemed universities, 5 institutions established and functioning under the State
Act, and 13 institutes which are of national importance.[44]
Other institutions include 16000 colleges, including 1800 exclusive women's
colleges, functioning under these universities and institutions.[44]
The emphasis in the tertiary level of education lies on science and
technology.[46]
Indian educational institutions by 2004 consisted of a large number of
technology institutes.[47]
Distance learning is also a feature of the Indian higher education system.[47]

Some institutions of India, such as the Indian
Institutes of Technology (IITs), have been globally acclaimed for their
standard of education.[47]
The IITs enroll about 8000 students annually and the alumni have contributed to
both the growth of the private sector and the public sectors of India.[48]
However, India has failed to produce world class universities like Harvard or Cambridge.[49]

Besides top rated universities which provide highly competitive world class
education to their pupil, India is also home to many universities which have
been founded with the sole objective of making easy money. Regulatory
authorities like UGC and AICTE have been trying very hard to extirpate the
menace of private universities which are running courses without any affiliation
or recognition. Students from rural and semi urban background often fall prey to
these institutes and colleges.[50][dead
link]

Three Indian universities were listed in the Times Higher
Education list of the world’s top 200 universities — Indian
Institutes of Technology, Indian
Institutes of Management, and Jawaharlal Nehru
University in 2005 and 2006.[51]
Six Indian Institutes of Technology and the Birla
Institute of Technology and Science - Pilani were listed among the top 20
science and technology schools in Asia by Asiaweek.[52]
The Indian School of
Business situated in Hyderabad was
ranked number 12 in global MBA rankings by the Financial Times of
London in 2010[53]
while the All
India Institute of Medical Sciences has been recognized as a global leader
in medical research and treatment.[54]

[edit]
Technical education

From the first Five Year Plan onwards India's emphasis was to develop a pool
of scientifically inclined manpower.[55]
India's National Policy on Education (NPE) provisioned for an apex body for
regulation and development of higher technical education, which came into being
as the All
India Council for Technical Education (AICTE) in 1987 through an act of the
Indian parliament.[56]
At the level of the centre the Indian
Institutes of Technology and the Indian
Institutes of Information Technology are deemed of national importance.[56]
The Indian
Institutes of Management are also among the nation's premier education
facilities.[56]
Several Regional Engineering Colleges (REC) have been converted into National
Institutes of Technology.[56]
The UGC has inter-university centres at a number of locations throughout India
to promote common research, e.g. the Nuclear Science Centre at the Jawaharlal Nehru
University, New Delhi.[57]

In addition to above institutes, efforts towards the enhancement of technical
education are supplemented by a number of recognized Professional Engineering
Societies like: (i) the Institution of Engineers (India); (ii) The Institution
of Chemical Engineering (India); (iii) The Institution of Electronics and
Tele-Communication Engineers (India); (iv) The Indian Institute of Metals; (v)
The Institution of Industrial Engineers (India); (vi) The Institute of Town
Planners (India); (vii) The Indian Institute of Architects, etc., who conduct
Engineering/Technical Examinations at different levels(Degree and diploma) for
working professionals desirous of improving their technical qualifications

[edit]
Literacy

Main article: Literacy in
India

According to the Census of 2001, "every person above the age of 7 years who
can read and write in any language is said to be literate". According to this
criterion, the 2001 survey holds the National Literacy Rate to be around
64.84%.[58]
Government statistics of 2001 also hold that the rate of increase in literacy is
more in rural areas than in urban areas.[58]
Female literacy was at a national average of 53.63% whereas the male literacy
was 75.26%.[58]
Within the Indian states, Kerala has shown the highest
literacy rates of 90.02% whereas Bihar averaged lower than 50%
literacy, the lowest in India.[58]
The 2001 statistics also indicated that the total number of 'absolute
non-literates' in the country was 304 million.[58]

[edit]
Attainment

World Bank statistics found that fewer than 40 percent of adolescents in
India attend secondary schools.[2]
The Economist reports that half of 10-year-old rural children could not
read at a basic level, over 60% were unable to do division, and half dropped out
by the age 14.[30]

Only one in ten young people have access to tertiary
education.[2]
Out of those who receive higher education, Mercer Consulting estimates
that only a quarter of graduates are "employable".[59]

An optimistic estimate is that only one in five job-seekers in India has ever
had any sort of vocational
training.[60]

Higher education

As per Report of the Higher education in India, Issues Related to Expansion,
Inclusiveness, Quality and Finance,[61]
the access to higher education measured in term of gross enrolment ratio
increased from 0.7% in 1950/51 to 1.4% in 1960-61. By 2006/7 the GER increased
to about 11 percent. By 2012, (the end of 11th plan objective) is to increase it
to 15%.

[edit]
Women's education

Girls in Kalleda Rural School, Andhra
Pradesh.

See also: Women in India

Women have much lower literacy rate than men. Far fewer girls are enrolled in
the schools, and many of them drop out.[62]
According to a 1998 report by U.S. Department of Commerce, the chief barrier to
female education in India are inadequate school facilities (such as sanitary
facilities), shortage of female teachers and gender bias in curriculum (majority
of the female characters being depicted as weak and helpless).[63]
Conservative cultural attitudes, especially among Muslims, prevents some girls
from attending school.[64]

The number of literate women among the female population of India was between
2-6% from the British Raj onwards to the formation of the Republic of India in
1947.[65]
Concerted efforts led to improvement from 15.3% in 1961 to 28.5% in 1981.[65]
By 2001 literacy for women had exceeded 50% of the overall female population,
though these statistics were still very low compared to world standards and even
male literacy within India.[66]
Recently the Indian government has launched Saakshar Bharat Mission for
Female Literacy. This mission aims to bring down female illiteracy by half
of its present level.

Sita Anantha Raman outlines the progress of women's education in India:

Since 1947 the Indian government has tried to provide incentives for
girls’ school attendance through programs for midday meals, free books,
and uniforms. This welfare thrust raised primary enrollment between 1951
and 1981. In 1986 the National Policy on Education decided to restructure
education in tune with the social framework of each state, and with larger
national goals. It emphasized that education was necessary for democracy,
and central to the improvement of women’s condition. The new policy aimed
at social change through revised texts, curricula, increased funding for
schools, expansion in the numbers of schools, and policy improvements.
Emphasis was placed on expanding girls’ occupational centers and primary
education; secondary and higher education; and rural and urban
institutions. The report tried to connect problems like low school
attendance with poverty, and the dependence on girls for housework and
sibling day care. The National Literacy Mission also worked through female
tutors in villages. Although the minimum marriage age is now eighteen for
girls, many continue to be married much earlier. Therefore, at the
secondary level, female dropout rates are high.[67]

Sita Anantha Raman also maintains that while the educated Indian women
workforce maintains professionalism, the men outnumber them in most fields and,
in some cases, receive higher income for the same positions.[67]

[edit]
Rural education

A primary school in a village in Madhya
Pradesh.

Following independence, India viewed education as an effective tool for
bringing social change through community development.[68]
The administrative control was effectively initiated in the 1950s, when, in
1952, the government grouped villages under a Community Development Block—an
authority under national programme which could control education in up to 100
villages.[68]
A Block Development Officer oversaw a geographical area of 150 square miles
(390 km2) which could contain a population of as many as 70000
people.[68]

Setty and Ross elaborate on the role of such programmes, themselves divided
further into individual-based, community based, or the
Individual-cum-community-based, in which microscopic levels of
development are overseen at village level by an appointed worker:

The community development programmes comprise agriculture, animal
husbandry, cooperation, rural industries, rural engineering (consisting of
minor irrigation, roads, buildings), health and sanitation including
family welfare, family planning, women welfare, child care and nutrition,
education including adult education, social education and literacy, youth
welfare and community organisation. In each of these areas of development
there are several programmes, schemes and activities which are additive,
expanding and tapering off covering the total community, some segments, or
specific target populations such as small and marginal farmers, artisans,
women and in general people below the poverty line.[68]

Despite some setbacks the rural education programmes continued throughout the
1950s, with support from private institutions.[69]
A sizable network of rural education had been established by the time the
Gandhigram Rural Institute was established and 5, 200 Community
Development Blocks were established in India.[70]
Nursery schools, elementary schools, secondary school, and schools for adult
education for women were set up.[70]
The government continued to view rural education as an agenda that could be
relatively free from bureaucratic backlog and general stagnation.[70]
However, in some cases lack of financing balanced the gains made by rural
education institutes of India.[71]
Some ideas failed to find acceptability among India's poor and investments made
by the government sometimes yielded little results.[71]
Today, government rural schools remain poorly funded and understaffed. Several
foundations, such as the Rural
Development Foundation (Hyderabad), actively build high-quality rural
schools, but the number of students served is small.

[edit]
Issues

[edit]
Funding and
infrastructure

One study found out that 25% of public sector teachers and 40% of public
sector medical workers were absent during the survey. Among teachers who were
paid to teach, absence rates ranged from 15% in Maharashtra to 71% in Bihar. Only 1 in
nearly 3000 public school head teachers had ever dismissed a teacher for
repeated absence.[72]
A study on teachers by Kremer etc. found that 'only about half were teaching,
during unannounced visits to a nationally representative sample of government
primary schools in India.'.[72]

A study of 188 government-run primary schools found that 59% of the schools
had no drinking water and 89% had no toilets.[73]
2003-04 data by National Institute of Educational Planning and Administration
revealed that only 3.5% of primary schools in Bihar and Chhattisgarh had toilets
for girls. In Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Andhra
Pradesh, Gujarat, Rajasthan and Himachal Pradesh, rates
were 12-16%.[74]

[edit]
Curriculum issues

Modern education in India is often criticized for being based on rote
learning rather than problem solving. BusinessWeek denigrates the
Indian curriculum saying it revolves around rote learning.[75]
and ExpressIndia suggests that students are focused on cramming.[76]

[edit]
Controversy

In January 2010, the Government of India decided to withdraw Deemed university
status from as many as 44 rations were not being kept in mind by the management
of these institutions and that "they were being run as family fiefdoms".[77]

Fake degrees are a problem. One raid in Bihar found 100,000 fake
certificates.[78]
In February 2009, the University Grant Commission found 19 fake institutions
operating in India.[79]

Only 16% of manufacturers in India offer in-service training to their
employees, compared with over 90% in China.[80]

[edit]
Initiatives

Boys seated in school near Baroda,
Gujarat.

The madrasah of Jamia Masjid mosque
in Srirangapatna.

Following India's independence a number of rules were formulated for the
backward Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes of India, and in 1960 a list
identifying 405 Scheduled Castes and 225 Scheduled Tribes was published by the
central government.[81]
An amendment was made to the list in 1975, which identified 841 Scheduled Castes
and 510 Scheduled Tribes.[81]
The total percentage of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes combined was found
to be 22.5 percent with the Scheduled Castes accounting for 17 percent and the
Scheduled Tribes accounting for the remaining 7.5 percent.[81]
Following the report many Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes increasingly
referred to themselves as Dalit, a Marathi language
terminology used by B. R. Ambedkar which
literally means "oppressed".[81]

The Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes are provided for in many of India's
educational programmes.[82]
Special reservations are also provided for the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled
Tribes in India, e.g. a reservation of 15% in Kendriya Vidyalaya for
Scheduled Castes and another reservation of 7.5% in Kendriya Vidyalaya
for Scheduled Tribes.[82]
Similar reservations are held by the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in
many schemes and educational facilities in India.[82]
The remote and far-flung regions of North East India are provided for under the
Non Lapsible Central pool of Resources (NLCPR) since 1998-1999.[83]
The NLCPR aims to provide funds for infrastructure development in these remote
areas.[83]

The government objective for the Sarva Shiksha
Abhiyan (SSA), started in 2001, is to provide education to children
between 6–14 years by 2010.[84]
The programme focuses specially on girls and children with challenged social or
financial backgrounds.[84]
The SSA also aims to provide practical infrastructure and relevant source
material in form of free textbooks to children in remote areas.[84]
The SSA also aims at widening computer education in rural areas.[84]
SSA is currently working with Agastya
International Foundation - an educational NGO - to augment its efforts in
making science curriculum current and exciting. However, some objectives of the
SSA, e.g. enrollment of all children under the scheme in schools by 2005 remain
unfulfilled.[84]
Education Guarantee Scheme and Alternative and Innovative Education are
components of the SSA.[84]

Women from remote, underdeveloped areas or from weaker social groups in Andra Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Jharkhand, Karnataka, Kerala, Gujarat, Uttar
Pradesh, and Uttarakhand, fall under the
Mahila Samakhya Scheme, initiated in 1989.[85]
Apart from provisions for education this programme also aims to raise awareness
by holding meetings and seminars at rural levels.[85]
The government allowed 340 million (US$ 7.7
million) during 2007–08 to carry out this scheme over 83 districts
including more than 21, 000 villages.[85]

Currently there are 68 Bal Bhavans and 10 Bal Kendra affiliated
to the National Bal Bhavan.[86]
The scheme involves educational and social activities and recognising children
with a marked talent for a particular educational stream.[86]
A number of programmes and activities are held under this scheme, which also
involves cultural exchanges and participation in several international
forums.[86]

India's minorities, especially the ones considered 'educationally backward'
by the government, are provided for in the 1992 amendment of the Indian National
Policy on Education (NPE).[87]
The government initiated the Scheme of Area Intensive Programme for
Educationally Backward Minorities and Scheme of Financial Assistance or
Modernisation of Madarsa Education as part of its revised Programme of Action
(1992).[87]
Both these schemes were started nationwide by 1994.[87]
In 2004 the Indian parliament allowed an act which enabled minority education
establishments to seek university affiliations if they passed the required
norms.[87]

[edit]
Central government
involvement

[edit]
Budget

As a part of the tenth Five year Plan
(2002–2007), the central government of India outlined an expenditure of 65.6% of
its total education budget of  438.25 billion (US$ 9.95
billion) i.e.  287.5 billion (US$ 6.53
billion) on elementary education; 9.9% i.e. 43.25 billion (US$ 981.78
million) on secondary education; 2.9% i.e. 12.5 billion (US$ 283.75
million) on adult education; 9.5% i.e. 41.765 billion (US$ 948.07
million) on higher education; 10.7% i.e.  47 billion (US$ 1.07
billion) on technical education; and the remaining 1.4% i.e. 6.235 billion (US$ 141.53
million) on miscellaneous education schemes.[88]

According to the United
Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), India
has the lowest public expenditure on higher education per student in the
world.[89]

See also: Education
in India Five Year Plan Expenditure

[edit]
Public
Expenditure on Education in India

In recent times, several major announcements were made for developing the
poor state of affairs in education sector in India, the most notable ones being
the National Common Minimum Programme (NCMP) of the United Progressive Alliance
(UPA) government. The announcements are; (a) To progressively increase
expenditure on education to around 6 percent of GDP. (b) To support this
increase in expenditure on education, and to increase the quality of education,
there would be an imposition of an education cess over all central government
taxes. (c) To ensure that no one is denied of education due to economic
backwardness and poverty. (d) To make right to education a fundamental right for
all children in the age group 6–14 years. (e) To universalize education through
its flagship programmes such as Sarva Siksha Abhiyan and Mid Day Meal.

However, even after five years of implementation of NCMP, not much progress
has been done on these promises or announcements. The public expenditure on
education has actually declined from around 3.23 percent of GDP in 2000-2001 to
2.88 percent in the recent times. As a proportion of total government
expenditure, it has declined from around 11.1 percent in 2000-2001 to around
9.98 percent during UPA rule. A policy brief issued by [Network for Social
Accountability (NSA)][90]
titled “[NSA Response to Education Sector Interventions in Union Budget: UPA
Rule and the Education Sector][91]”
provides significant revelation to this fact. Due to a declining priority of
education in the public policy paradigm in India, there has been an exponential
growth in the private expenditure on education also. [As per the available
information, the private out of pocket expenditure by the working class
population for the education of their children in India has increased by around
1150 percent or around 12.5 times over the last decade].[92]

[edit]
Legislative
framework

Article 45, of the Constitution of
India originally stated:

“

The State shall endeavour to provide, within a period of ten
years from the commencement of this Constitution, for free and compulsory
education for all children until they complete the age of fourteen
years.[17]

”

This article was a directive
principle of state policy within India, effectively meaning that it was
within a set of rules that were meant to be followed in spirit and the
government could not be held to court if the actual letter was not followed.[93]
However, the enforcement of this directive principle became a matter of debate
since this principle held obvious emotive and practical value, and was legally
the only directive principle within the Indian constitution to have a time
limit.[93]

Following initiatives by the Supreme Court of
India during the 1990s the Ninety-third amendment bill suggested three
separate amendments to the Indian constitution:[94]

The constitution of India was amended to include a new article, 21A, which
read:

“

The State shall provide free and compulsory education to all
children of the age of six to fourteen years in a such manner as the State
may, by law, determine.[95]

”

Article 45 was proposed to be substituted by the article which
read:

“

Provision for early childhood care and education to children
below the age of six years: The State shall endeavour to provide early
childhood care and education for all children until they complete the age
of sixteen years.[95]

”

Another article, 51A, was to additionally have the clause:

“

...a parent or guardian [shall] provide opportunities for
education to his child or, as the case may be, [a] ward between the age of
six to fourteen years.[95]

”

The bill was passed unanimously in the Lok Sabha, the lower house
of the Indian parliament,
on November 28, 2001.[96]
It was later passed by the upper house—the Rajya Sabha—on May 14,
2002.[96]
After being signed by the President of India
the Indian constitution was amended formally for the eighty sixth time and the
bill came into effect.[96]
Since then those between the age of 6–14 have a fundamental right to
education.[97]

Article 46 of the Constitution of India holds that:

“

The State shall promote, with special care, the education and
economic interests of the weaker sections of the people, and in particular
of the Scheduled Castes
and Scheduled Tribes,
and shall protect them from social injustice and all forms of social
exploitation'.[58]

”

Other provisions for the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes can be found
in Articles 330, 332, 335, 338–342.[58]
Both the 5th and the 6th Schedules of the Constitution also make special
provisions for the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes.[58]

[edit]
See also

National
Curriculum Framework for Teacher Education

National
Translation Mission

Two Million
Minutes (documentary film)

[edit]
Notes

^
Estimate for India, from India, CIA World
Factbook

^ a
b
c
"Education in India". World Bank. http://www.worldbank.org.in/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/SOUTHASIAEXT/INDIAEXTN/0,,contentMDK:21493265~pagePK:141137~piPK:141127~theSitePK:295584,00.html.

^
India
achieves 27% decline in poverty, Press Trust of India via
Sify.com, 2008-09-12

^ a
b
Lesson
Plans, by Anuradha Raghunathan of Forbes, 09.11.08

^
India
still Asia's reluctant tiger, by Zareer Masani of BBC Radio 4, 27
February 2008

^
SPECIAL REPORT: THE EDUCATION RACE, by Newsweek,
August 18–25, 2008 issue

^
"Science and Technology Education". Press Information
Bureau. http://pib.nic.in/archieve/others/2007/May07/2007050113.pdf. Retrieved 2009-08-08.

^
How To Save The World's Back Office, by Sramana Mitra of
Forbes, 03.14.08

^
Blackwell, 90

^ a
b
c
d
e
f
Prabhu, 24

^
Blackwell, 89

^ a
b
c
Prabhu, 25

^
Blackwell, 89–91

^ a
b
Blackwell, 91–92

^
Ferguson, Niall (2003). Empire: How Britain
made the Modern World. Penguin. p. 191. ISBN 0141007540.

^
"Literacy Scenario in India (1951 - 1991)". http://www.education.nic.in/cd50years/y/3T/9U/3T9U0301.htm. Retrieved December 29, 2009.

^ a
b
c
Sripati and Thiruvengadam, 150

^
Sripati and Thiruvengadam, 150–151

^ a
b
India 2009: A Reference Annual (53rd edition), 208

^
{ssa.nic.in}

^ a
b
c
India 2009: A Reference Annual (53rd edition), 233

^
India 2009: A Reference Annual (53rd edition), 230–234

^
{www.nuepa.org}

^
{www.ncte-india.org}

^ a
b
c
d
Blackwell, 93–94

^ a
b
{http://www.dise.in/ar2005.html%7D

^ a
b
http://education.nic.in/Elementary/free%20and%20compulsory.pdf

^ a
b
c
d
e
India 2009: A Reference Annual (53rd edition), 215

^ a
b
c
"Private
Education in India can Benefit Poor People". http://www.globalenvision.org/library/8/767.

^ a
b
"A special report on India: Creaking, groaning: Infrastructure is
India’s biggest handicap". The Economist. 11 December 2008. http://www.economist.com/specialreports/displaystory.cfm?story_id=12749787.

^
Geeta Gandhi Kingdon. "The progress of school education in India". http://www.gprg.org/pubs/workingpapers/pdfs/gprg-wps-071.pdf.

^ a
b
c
Amit Varma (2007-01-15). "Why India Needs School Vouchers". Wall Street Journal. http://online.wsj.com/article/SB116882502361976702.html.

^
{http://www.atimes.com/atimes/South_Asia/FC02Df03.htm.%7D

^
{http://www.dise.in/Downloads/Publication%202007-08/Rural0708/teacher_part1.pdf%7D

^
"RTE: Homeschooling too is fine, says Sibal". Times of India.
2010. http://epaper.timesofindia.com/Default/Scripting/ArticleWin.asp?From=Archive&Source=Page&Skin=TOINEW&BaseHref=TOIPU%2F2010%2F09%2F08&ViewMode=GIF&GZ=T&PageLabel=1&EntityId=Ar00104&AppName=1.

^
India 2009: A Reference Annual (53rd edition), 231

^
{http://www.education.nic.in/secedu/sec_overview.asp%7D

^
Blackwell, 94–95

^
{http://www.education.nic.in/secedu/Framework_Final_RMSA.pdf%7D

^
{http://www.education.nic.in/secedu/sec_iedc.asp%7D

^
{http://www.indg.in/primary-education/%7D

^
Prime Minister Manmohan Singh. "PM’s address at the 150th Anniversary Function of University of
Mumbai". http://pmindia.nic.in/speech/content.asp?id=555.

^
"India Country Summary of Higher Education". World Bank. http://siteresources.worldbank.org/EDUCATION/Resources/278200-1121703274255/1439264-1193249163062/India_CountrySummary.pdf.

^ a
b
c
India 2009: A Reference Annual (53rd edition), 237

^
"''Higher
Education'', National Informatics Centre, Government of India".
Education.nic.in. http://www.education.nic.in/higedu.asp. Retrieved 2010-09-01.

^
Blackwell, 95–96

^ a
b
c
Blackwell, 96

^
Vrat, 230-231

^
India doesn't figure in world top-100 universities, Press
Trust of India via timesofindia.com, 2010-09-12

^
Fake and Cheat Universities in India, Think Ahead.[dead
link]

^
"Times Higher Education". Times Higher Education.
2006-10-06. http://www.timeshighereducation.co.uk/hybrid.asp?typeCode=161. Retrieved 2010-09-01.

^
"Asia's Best Science and Technology Schools". Cgi.cnn.com.
2000-06-22. http://www-cgi.cnn.com/ASIANOW/asiaweek/features/universities2000/scitech/sci.overall.html. Retrieved 2010-09-01.

^
"MBA global Top 100 rankings - FT". ft.com. http://rankings.ft.com/businessschoolrankings/global-mba-rankings. Retrieved 2009-03-04.

^
"Medical Meccas: An Oasis
for India's Poorest | Newsweek Health for Life | Newsweek.com".
Newsweek.com. http://www.newsweek.com/id/45114. Retrieved 2008-11-03.

^
"Infrastructure: S&T Education", Science and Technology in India,
30

^ a
b
c
d
"Infrastructure: S&T Education", Science and Technology in India,
31

^
"Infrastructure: S&T Education", Science and Technology in India,
32

^ a
b
c
d
e
f
g
h
India 2009: A Reference Annual (53rd edition), 225

^
"Mere 25% graduates in India are employable: Mercer
Consulting". 2008. http://www.livemint.com/2008/02/21182309/Mere-25-graduates-in-India-ar.html.

^
"A special report on India: An elephant, not a tiger". The
Economist. 11 December 2008. http://www.economist.com/specialreports/displayStory.cfm?story_id=12749735.

^
"12. Report of the
HIGHER EDUCATION IN INDIA Issues Related to Expansion, Inclusiveness, Quality
and Finance, May 2008". Ugc.ac.in. http://www.ugc.ac.in/pub/index.html. Retrieved 2010-09-01.

^
Kalyani Menon-Sen, A. K. Shiva Kumar
(2001). "Women in India: How Free? How Equal?". United Nations.
Archived from the original on 2006-09-11. http://web.archive.org/web/20060911183722/http://www.un.org.in/wii.htm. Retrieved 2006-12-24.

^
Victoria A. Velkoff (October 1998). "Women of the World: Women's Education in India" (PDF). U.S.
Department of Commerce. http://www.census.gov/ipc/prod/wid-9801.pdf. Retrieved 2006-12-25.

^
"In India, Can Schools Offer Path Out Of Poverty?".
2010-05-14. http://www.npr.org/templates/transcript/transcript.php?storyId=126801186. Retrieved 2010-06-23.

^ a
b
Raman, 235

^
Raman, 236

^ a
b
Raman, 238

^ a
b
c
d
Setty and Ross, 120

^
Setty and Ross, 121

^ a
b
c
Setty and Ross, 122

^ a
b
Setty and Ross, 125

^ a
b
4-6 p.m. (2009-10-30). "Kremer etc. (2004), "Teacher Absence in India: A Snapshot",
''Journal of the European Economic Association''".
Globetrotter.berkeley.edu. http://globetrotter.berkeley.edu/macarthur/inequality/papers/KremerTeacherAbsenceinIndia.pdf. Retrieved 2010-09-01.

^
Basu, Kaushik (2004-11-29). "Combating India's truant teachers". BBC. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/4051353.stm. Retrieved 2010-01-03.

^
Singh, Shivani (7 April 2005). "Education cess: Are govt schools any better now?". The Times
of India. http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/articleshow/1070939.cms.

^
"India". BusinessWeek. http://www.businessweek.com/magazine/content/04_22/b3885015.htm.

^
"‘Rote system of learning still rules the roost’".
ExpressIndia. 2008. http://www.expressindia.com/latest-news/rote-system-of-learning-still-rules-the-roost/375996/.

^
"44 institutions to lose deemed university status - Economy and
Politics". livemint.com. 2010-01-18. http://www.livemint.com/2010/01/18232326/44-institutions-to-lose-deemed.html. Retrieved 2010-09-01.

^
"100,000 fake certificates found in Bihar". http://www.hindustantimes.com/StoryPage/StoryPage.aspx?sectionName=&id=9dc2ff8a-268d-44e1-9737-a42efeb5da9d&MatchID1=4924&TeamID1=4&TeamID2=2&MatchType1=1&SeriesID1=1244&PrimaryID=4924&Headline=100%2c000+fake+certificates+found+in+Bihar.

^
"22 universities across India fake: UGC". ExpressIndia. http://www.expressindia.com/latest-news/22-universities-across-India-fake-UGC/425697/.

^
"Country
Strategy for India (CAS) 2009-2012". World Bank. http://www.ukibc.com/ukindia2/files/India60.pdf.

^ a
b
c
d
Elder, 227

^ a
b
c
India 2009: A Reference Annual (53rd edition), 226–227

^ a
b
India 2009: A Reference Annual (53rd edition), 236–237

^ a
b
c
d
e
f
India 2009: A Reference Annual (53rd edition), 211

^ a
b
c
India 2009: A Reference Annual (53rd edition), 216

^ a
b
c
India 2009: A Reference Annual (53rd edition), 218

^ a
b
c
d
India 2009: A Reference Annual (53rd edition), 239

^
India 2009: A Reference Annual (53rd edition), 223

^
"Higher
education spending: India at the bottom of BRIC". Rediff. 2005. http://www.rediff.com/money/2007/feb/05edu.htm.

^
"Network for Social
Accountability". NSA. 2009-12-28. http://www.nsa.org.in/. Retrieved 2010-09-01.

^
"345 NSA Response to Education Sector Interventions in Union
Budget-UPA Rule and the Education Sector by Siba Sankar Mohanty".
Nsa.org.in. 2009-02-21. http://www.nsa.org.in/Policybrief/2009/345NSARUBEDU1.htm. Retrieved 2010-09-01.

^
"309: How the Working Class has Performed in the Turbulent Years
of Liberalisation-A Priliminary Study of Working Class Income and Expenditure
Survey1999-2000 Page-1". Nsa.org.in. http://www.nsa.org.in/Policybrief/309NSAResearchTeam1.htm. Retrieved 2010-09-01.

^ a
b
Sripati and Thiruvengadam, 149–50

^
Sripati and Thiruvengadam, 152–154

^ a
b
c
Sripati and Thiruvengadam, 154

^ a
b
c
Sripati and Thiruvengadam, 156

^
Sripati and Thiruvengadam, 149

[edit]
References

Blackwell, Fritz (2004), India: A Global Studies Handbook, United
States of America: ABC-CLIO, Inc., ISBN
1-57607-348-3.

Elder, Joseph W. (2006), "Caste System", Encyclopedia of India (vol.
1) edited by Stanley Wolpert, 223-229, Thomson Gale: ISBN
0-684-31350-2.

"Infrastructure: S&T Education", Science and Technology in
India edited by R.K. Suri and Kalapana Rajaram (2008), New Delhi:
Spectrum, ISBN
81-7930-294-6.

India 2009: A Reference Annual (53rd edition), New Delhi:
Additional Director General (ADG), Publications Division, Ministry of
Information and Broadcasting, Government of India, ISBN
978-81-230-1557-6.

Prabhu, Joseph (2006), "Educational Institutions and Philosophies,
Traditional and Modern", Encyclopedia of India (vol. 2) edited by
Stanley Wolpert, 23–28, Thomson Gale: ISBN
0-684-31351-0.

Raman, S.A. (2006). "Women's Education", Encyclopedia of India (vol.
4), edited by Stanley Wolpert, 235-239, Thomson Gale: ISBN
0-684-31353-7.

Setty, E.D. and Ross, E.L. (1987), "A Case Study in Applied Education in
Rural India", Community Development Journal, 22 (2): 120–129,
Oxford University Press.

Sripati, V. and Thiruvengadam, A.K. (2004), "India: Constitutional
Amendment Making The Right to Education a Fundamental Right", International
Journal of Constitutional Law, 2 (1): 148–158, Oxford University
Press.

Vrat, Prem (2006), "Indian Institutes of Technology", Encyclopedia of
India (vol. 2) edited by Stanley Wolpert, 229-231, Thomson Gale: ISBN
0-684-31351-0.

[edit]
External links

Government official education website.

India Education

E-Learning Division of the Department of IT, Ministry of
Communications & IT, Govt. of India

India International Education Fair Website.

v • d • e

Education in
India

Education in States

Andhra
Pradesh  · Arunachal
Pradesh  · Assam
· Bihar
· Chhattisgarh
· Goa  · Gujarat
· Haryana
· Himachal
Pradesh  · Jammu
and Kashmir  · Jharkhand
· Karnataka
· Kerala
· Madhya
Pradesh  · Maharashtra
· Manipur
· Meghalaya
· Mizoram
· Nagaland
· Orissa
· Punjab
· Rajasthan
· Sikkim
· Tamil
Nadu  · Tripura
· Uttar
Pradesh  · Uttarakhand
· West
Bengal

List of educational
institutions by
states

Andhra
Pradesh  · Arunachal
Pradesh  · Assam
· Bihar
· Chhattisgarh
· Goa
· Gujarat
· Haryana
· Himachal
Pradesh  · Jammu
and Kashmir  · Jharkhand
· Karnataka
· Kerala
· Madhya
Pradesh  · Maharashtra
· Manipur
· Meghalaya
· Mizoram
· Nagaland
· Orissa
· Punjab
· Rajasthan
· Sikkim
· Tamil
Nadu  · Tripura
· Uttar
Pradesh  · Uttarakhand
· West
Bengal

List of educational
institutions by
cities

Bangalore
· Chandigarh
· Dharwad
· Hyderabad
· Indore
· Jhansi
· Kozhikode
· Lucknow
· Madurai
· Nagpur
· Thalassery
· Trichy
· Erode

List of educational
institutions by
type

Schools · Universities
(Architecture ·
Business ·
Dentistry · Engineering · Law · Medicine · Nursing · Pharmacy · Veterinary)

v • d • e

Education in Asia

Sovereign
states

Afghanistan ·
Armenia1 ·
Azerbaijan1 ·
Bahrain ·
Bangladesh ·
Bhutan ·
Brunei ·
Burma2 ·
Cambodia ·
People's
Republic of China · Cyprus1 ·
East
Timor3 · Egypt4 ·
Georgia4 ·
India · Indonesia ·
Iran ·
Iraq ·
Israel ·
Japan ·
Jordan ·
Kazakhstan4 ·
North
Korea · South
Korea · Kuwait ·
Kyrgyzstan ·
Laos ·
Lebanon ·
Malaysia ·
Maldives ·
Mongolia ·
Nepal ·
Oman ·
Pakistan ·
Philippines ·
Qatar ·
Russia4 ·
Saudi
Arabia · Singapore ·
Sri
Lanka · Syria ·
Tajikistan ·
Thailand ·
Turkey4 ·
Turkmenistan ·
United
Arab Emirates · Uzbekistan ·
Vietnam ·
Yemen

States
with limited
recognition

Abkhazia1 ·
Nagorno-Karabakh ·
Northern
Cyprus · Palestine ·
Republic
of China5 · South
Ossetia1

Dependencies,
autonomies,
other
territories

Aceh ·
Adjara1 ·
Akrotiri
and Dhekelia · Altai ·
British
Indian Ocean Territory · Buryatia ·
Christmas
Island · Cocos
(Keeling) Islands · Guangxi ·
Hong
Kong · Inner
Mongolia · Iraqi
Kurdistan · Khakassia ·
Macau ·
Nakhchivan ·
Ningxia ·
Papua ·
Sakha
Republic · Tibet ·
Tuva ·
West
Papua · Xinjiang

1 Sometimes
included in Europe, depending on
the border
definitions.  2
Officially known as Myanmar.
3 Sometimes
included in Oceania, and also
known as Timor-Leste.
4 Transcontinental
country.  5 Commonly
known as Taiwan.

v • d • e

Life in India

Arts
and Entertainment · Caste ·
Cinema ·
Citizenship ·
Climate ·
Cuisine ·
Culture ·
Demographics ·
Economy ·
Education · Ethnic
relations · Flag ·
Geography ·
Government ·
History ·
Holidays ·
Languages ·
Law ·
Police ·
Politics ·
Poverty ·
Literacy ·
Military ·
Politics ·
Religion ·
Sports ·
Transport

Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education_in_India"

Categories: Education in
India

Hidden categories: All
articles with dead external links | Articles
with dead external links from September 2010 | Articles
to be merged from March 2010 | All
articles to be merged | Wikipedia
articles in need of updating from April 2010 | Articles
containing potentially dated statements from 2007 | All
articles containing potentially dated statements | Articles
with dead external links from April 2010

Personal tools

Log
in / create account

Namespaces

Article

Discussion

Variants

Views

Read

Edit

View
history

Actions

Search

Navigation

Main page

Contents

Featured
content

Current
events

Random article

Donate

Interaction

Help

About Wikipedia

Community
portal

Recent
changes

Contact
Wikipedia

Toolbox

What
links here

Related
changes

Upload file

Special
pages

Permanent
link

Cite
this page

Print/export

Create a book

Download as PDF

Printable
version

Languages

Español

हिन्दी

日本語

తెలుగు

中文

This page was last modified on 4 December 2010 at
14:45.

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. See Terms of Use for
details.
Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a
non-profit organization.

Contact
us

Privacy
policy

About Wikipedia

Disclaimers