Education

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"Educate" redirects here. For the journal published by the
Institute of Education, see Educate~.

For the stained-glass window at Yale University, see Education
(Chittenden Memorial Window).

A kindergarten classroom in
Afghanistan.

An elementary classroom in
Mexico.

A lecture
theater in New York
City.

Education in the largest sense is any act or experience that has a
formative effect on the mind, character or physical
ability of an individual. In its technical sense, education is the process by
which society deliberately transmits its accumulated knowledge, skills and values
from one generation to another.

Etymologically, the word
education is derived from educare (Latin) "bring up", which is related to
educere "bring out", "bring forth what is within", "bring out potential"
and ducere, "to lead".[1]

Teachers in educational
institutions direct the education of students and might draw on many
subjects, including
reading, writing, mathematics, science and history. This
process is sometimes called schooling when referring to the
education of teaching only a certain subject, usually as professors at
institutions of higher learning. There
is also education in fields for those who want specific vocational skills,
such as those required to be a pilot. In addition there is an array of education
possible at the informal level, such
as in museums and libraries, with the Internet and in life experience. Many
non-traditional education options are now available and continue to evolve.

A right to education has been created and recognized by some jurisdictions:
since 1952, Article 2 of the first Protocol to the European
Convention on Human Rights obliges all signatory parties to guarantee the
right to education. At world level, the United Nations' International
Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights of 1966 guarantees this
right under its Article 13.

Contents

1 Systems of formal
education

1.1 Preschool
education

1.2 Primary
education

1.3 Secondary
education

1.4 Higher
education

1.5 Adult
education

1.6 Alternative
education

1.7 Indigenous
education

2 Process

2.1 Curriculum

2.2 Learning
modalities

2.3 Teaching

2.4 Technology

3 Educational
theory

4 Economics

5 History

6 Philosophy

7 Psychology

8 Sociology

9 Education in the Developing
World

9.1 Internationalization

10 See also

11 References

12 External links

[edit]
Systems of formal
education

Education is the process by which people learn:

Instruction refers to the facilitating of learning, usually by a
teacher.

Teaching refers to the actions of a real live instructor to impart
learning to the student.

Learning refers to learning with a view toward preparing learners
with specific knowledge, skills, or abilities that can be applied immediately
upon completion.

[edit]
Preschool education

Main article: Preschool
education

[edit]
Primary education

Main article: Primary
education

Primary school in open air. Teacher (priest) with
class from the outskirts of Bucharest, around
1842.

Primary (or elementary) education consists of the first 5–7 years of
formal, structured education. In general, primary education consists of six or
eight years of schooling starting at the age of five or six, although this
varies between, and sometimes within, countries. Globally, around 89% of
primary-age children are enrolled in primary education, and this proportion is
rising.[2]
Under the Education for All
programs driven by UNESCO, most countries have
committed to achieving universal enrollment in primary education by 2015, and in
many countries, it is compulsory for children to receive primary education. The
division between primary and secondary education
is somewhat arbitrary, but it generally occurs at about eleven or twelve years
of age. Some education systems have separate middle schools, with the
transition to the final stage of secondary education taking place at around the
age of fourteen. Schools that provide primary education, are mostly referred to
as primary schools. Primary schools in these countries are often
subdivided into infant schools and junior
school.

[edit]
Secondary education

Main article: Secondary
education

In most contemporary educational systems of the world, secondary education
comprises the formal education that occurs during adolescence. It is
characterized by transition from the typically compulsory, comprehensive primary education for
minors, to the optional,
selective tertiary,
"post-secondary", or "higher" education
(e.g., university, vocational school
for adults.
Depending on the system, schools for this period, or a part of it, may be called
secondary or high schools, gymnasiums, lyceums, middle
schools, colleges, or vocational schools.
The exact meaning of any of these terms varies from one system to another. The
exact boundary between primary and secondary education also varies from country
to country and even within them, but is generally around the seventh to the
tenth year of schooling. Secondary education occurs mainly during the teenage
years. In the United States, Canada and Australia primary and
secondary education together are sometimes referred to as K-12 education,
and in New Zealand Year 1-13 is used. The purpose of secondary education can be
to give common knowledge, to
prepare for higher education or to
train directly in a profession.

The emergence of secondary education in the United States did not happen
until 1910, caused by the rise in big businesses and technological advances in
factories (for instance, the emergence of electrification), that required
skilled workers. In order to meet this new job demand, high schools were created
and the curriculum focused on practical job skills that would better prepare
students for white collar or
skilled blue collar work.
This proved to be beneficial for both the employer and the employee, because
this improvement in human capital caused employees to become more efficient,
which lowered costs for the employer, and skilled employees received a higher
wage than employees with just primary educational attainment.

In Europe, the grammar school or academy existed from as early as the 16th
century; public schools or fee paying schools, or charitable educational
foundations have an even longer history.

[edit]
Higher education

Main article: Higher education

The University of
Cambridge is an institute of higher learning.

Higher education, also called tertiary, third stage, or post secondary
education, is the non-compulsory educational level that follows the completion
of a school providing a secondary education, such as a high school, secondary school.
Tertiary education is normally taken to include undergraduate and postgraduate
education, as well as vocational education
and training. Colleges and universities are the main institutions that
provide tertiary education. Collectively, these are sometimes known as tertiary
institutions. Tertiary education generally results in the receipt of certificates, diplomas, or academic degrees.

Higher education includes teaching, research and social services activities
of universities, and within the realm of teaching, it includes both the
undergraduate level (sometimes referred to as tertiary education)
and the graduate (or
postgraduate) level (sometimes referred to as graduate school). Higher
education generally involves work towards a degree-level or foundation degree
qualification. In most developed countries a high proportion of the population
(up to 50%) now enter higher education at some time in their lives. Higher
education is therefore very important to national economies,
both as a significant industry in its own right, and as a source of trained and
educated personnel for the rest of the economy.

[edit]
Adult education

Main article: Adult education

Adult education has become common in many countries. It takes on many forms,
ranging from formal class-based learning to self-directed learning and e-learning.
A number of career specific courses such as veterinary
assisting, medical billing and coding, real estate license,
bookkeeping and many more
are now available to students through the Internet.

[edit]
Alternative
education

Main article: Alternative
education

Alternative
education, also known as non-traditional education or educational
alternative, is a broad term that may be used to refer to all forms of
education outside of traditional
education (for all age groups and levels of education). This may include not
only forms of education designed for students with special needs (ranging from
teenage pregnancy to intellectual disability), but also forms of education
designed for a general audience and employing alternative educational
philosophies and methods.

Alternatives of the latter type are often the result of education reform and
are rooted in various philosophies that
are commonly fundamentally different from those of traditional compulsory
education. While some have strong political, scholarly, or philosophical orientations,
others are more informal associations of teachers and students dissatisfied with
certain aspects of traditional
education. These alternatives, which include charter schools,
alternative
schools, independent
schools, and home-based
learning vary widely, but often emphasize the value of small class size,
close relationships between students and teachers, and a sense of
community.

[edit]
Indigenous education

Main article: Indigenous
education

Increasingly, the inclusion of indigenous models of education (methods and
content) as an alternative within the scope of formal and non-formal
education systems, has come to represent a significant factor contributing
to the success of those members of indigenous communities who choose to access
these systems, both as students/learners and as teachers/instructors.

[edit]
Process

[edit]
Curriculum

Main articles: Curriculum and List of
academic disciplines

An academic
discipline is a branch of knowledge which is formally taught, either at the
university, or via some other such method. Each discipline usually has several
sub-disciplines or branches, and distinguishing lines are often both arbitrary
and ambiguous. Examples of broad areas of academic disciplines include the natural sciences, mathematics, computer science, social sciences, humanities
and applied sciences.[3]

[edit]
Learning modalities

There has been work on learning styles over the last two decades. Dunn and
Dunn[4]
focused on identifying relevant stimuli that may influence learning and
manipulating the school environment, at about the same time as Joseph Renzulli[5]
recommended varying teaching strategies. Howard Gardner[6]
identified individual talents or aptitudes in his Multiple
Intelligences theories. Based on the works of Jung, the Myers-Briggs
Type Indicator and Keirsey
Temperament Sorter[7]
focused on understanding how people's personality affects the way they interact
personally, and how this affects the way individuals respond to each other
within the learning environment. The work of David Kolb and Anthony Gregorc's Type
Delineator[8]
follows a similar but more simplified approach.

It is currently fashionable to divide education into different learning
"modes". The learning modalities[9]
are probably the most common:

Visual: learning based on
observation and seeing what is being learned.

Auditory: learning based on
listening to instructions/information.

Kinesthetic: learning
based on hands-on work and engaging in activities.

Although it is claimed that, depending on their preferred learning modality,
different teaching techniques have different levels of effectiveness,[10]
recent research has argued "there is no adequate evidence base to justify
incorporating learning styles assessments into general educational
practice."[11]

A consequence of this theory is that effective teaching should present a
variety of teaching methods which cover all three learning modalities so that
different students have equal opportunities to learn in a way that is effective
for them.[12]
Guy Claxton has questioned the extent that learning styles such as
VAK are helpful, particularly as they can have a tendency to label children and
therefore restrict learning.[13]

[edit]
Teaching

Teachers need to understand a subject enough to convey its essence to
students. While traditionally this has involved lecturing on the part of the
teacher, new instructional strategies put the teacher more into the role of
course designer, discussion facilitator, and coach and the student more into the
role of active learner, discovering the subject of the course. In any case, the
goal is to establish a sound knowledge base and skill set on which students will
be able to build as they are exposed to different life experiences. Good
teachers can translate information, good judgment, experience and wisdom into
relevant knowledge that a student can understand, retain and pass to others.
Studies from the US suggest that the quality of teachers is the single most
important factor affecting student performance, and that countries which score
highly on international tests have multiple policies in place to ensure that the
teachers they employ are as effective as possible.[14]
With the passing of NCLB in the United States (No Child Left Behind), teachers
must be highly qualified.

[edit]
Technology

Main article: Educational
technology

Technology is an increasingly influential factor in education. Computers and
mobile phones are used in developed countries both to complement established
education practices and develop new ways of learning such as online education (a
type of distance education).
This gives students the opportunity to choose what they are interested in
learning. The proliferation of computers also means the increase of programming
and blogging. Technology offers powerful learning tools that demand new skills
and understandings of students, including Multimedia, and
provides new ways to engage students, such as Virtual
learning environments. One such tool are virtual manipulatives, which are an
"interactive, Web-based visual representation of a dynamic object that presents
opportunities for constructing mathematical knowledge" (Moyer, Bolyard, &
Spikell, 2002). In short, virtual manipulatives are dynamic visual/pictorial
replicas of physical mathematical manipulatives, which have long been used to
demonstrate and teach various mathematical concepts. Virtual manipulatives can
be easily accessed on the Internet as stand-alone applets, allowing for easy
access and use in a variety of educational settings. Emerging research into the
effectiveness of virtual manipulatives as a teaching tool have yielded promising
results, suggesting comparable, and in many cases superior overall
concept-teaching effectiveness compared to standard teaching methods.[citation
needed] Technology is being used more not only in administrative
duties in education but also in the instruction of students. The use of
technologies such as PowerPoint and interactive
whiteboard is capturing the attention of students in the classroom.
Technology is also being used in the assessment of students. One example is the
Audience Response
System (ARS), which allows immediate feedback tests and classroom
discussions.[15]

Information and communication technologies (ICTs) are a “diverse set of tools
and resources used to communicate, create, disseminate, store, and manage
information.”[16]
These technologies include computers, the Internet, broadcasting technologies
(radio and television), and telephony. There is increasing interest in how
computers and the Internet can improve education at all levels, in both formal
and non-formal settings.[17]
Older ICT technologies, such as radio and television, have for over forty years
been used for open and distance learning, although print remains the cheapest,
most accessible and therefore most dominant delivery mechanism in both developed
and developing countries.[18]
In addition to classroom application and growth of e-learning opportunities for
knowledge attainment, educators involved in student affairs programming have
recognized the increasing importance of computer usage with data generation for
and about students. Motivation and retention counselors, along with faculty and
administrators, can impact the potential academic success of students by
provision of technology based experiences in the University setting.[19]

The use of computers and the Internet is in its infancy in developing
countries, if these are used at all, due to limited infrastructure and the
attendant high costs of access. Usually, various technologies are used in
combination rather than as the sole delivery mechanism. For example, the
Kothmale Community Radio Internet uses both radio broadcasts and computer and
Internet technologies to facilitate the sharing of information and provide
educational opportunities in a rural community in Sri Lanka.[20]
The Open University of the United Kingdom (UKOU), established in 1969 as the
first educational institution in the world wholly dedicated to open and distance
learning, still relies heavily on print-based materials supplemented by radio,
television and, in recent years, online programming.[21]
Similarly, the Indira Gandhi National Open University in India combines the use
of print, recorded audio and video, broadcast radio and television, and audio
conferencing technologies.[22]

The term "computer-assisted learning" (CAL) has been increasingly used to
describe the use of technology in teaching.

[edit]
Educational theory

Main article: Education theory

Education theory is the
theory of the purpose, application and interpretation of education and learning.
Its history begins with classical Greek educationalists and sophists and
includes, since the 18th century, pedagogy and andragogy. In the
20th century, "theory" has become an umbrella term for a variety of scholarly
approaches to teaching, assessment and education law, most of which are informed
by various academic fields, which can be seen in the below sections.

[edit]
Economics

Main article: Economics of
education

It has been argued that high rates of education are essential for countries
to be able to achieve high levels of economic growth.[23]
Empirical analyses tend to support the theoretical prediction that poor
countries should grow faster than rich countries because they can adopt cutting
edge technologies already tried and tested by rich countries. However, technology transfer
requires knowledgeable managers and engineers who are able to operate new
machines or production practices borrowed from the leader in order to close the
gap through imitation. Therefore, a country's ability to learn from the leader
is a function of its stock of "human capital".[24]
Recent study of the determinants of aggregate economic growth have stressed the
importance of fundamental economic institutions[25]
and the role of cognitive skills.[26]

At the individual level, there is a large literature, generally related back
to the work of Jacob Mincer,[27]
on how earnings are related to the schooling and other human capital of the
individual. This work has motivated a large number of studies, but is also
controversial. The chief controversies revolve around how to interpret the
impact of schooling.[28]

Economists Samuel Bowles
and Herbert Gintis famously argued in 1976 that there was a fundamental conflict
in American schooling between the egalitarian goal of
democratic participation and the inequalities implied by the continued
profitability of capitalist production on the other.[29]

[edit]
History

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for verification.
Please
help improve this article by adding reliable
references. Unsourced material may be challenged
and removed.
(November 2010)

Main article: History of
education

A depiction of the University of
Bologna, Italy

The history of education according to Dieter Lenzen, president of the Freie
Universität Berlin 1994, "began either millions of years ago or at the end
of 1770". Education as a science cannot be separated from the educational
traditions that existed before. Adults trained the young of their society in the
knowledge and skills they would need to master and eventually pass on. The
evolution of culture, and human beings as a species depended on this practice of
transmitting knowledge. In pre-literate societies this was achieved orally and
through imitation. Story-telling continued from one generation to the next. Oral
language developed into written symbols and letters. The depth and breadth of
knowledge that could be preserved and passed soon increased exponentially. When
cultures began to extend their knowledge beyond the basic skills of
communicating, trading, gathering food, religious practices, etc., formal
education, and schooling, eventually followed. Schooling in this sense was
already in place in Egypt between 3000 and 500BC.The history of education is the
history of man as since its the main occupation of man to pass knowledge, skills
and attitude from one generation to the other so is education.

Nowadays some kind of education is compulsory to all people in most
countries. Due to population growth and the proliferation of compulsory
education, UNESCO
has calculated that in the next 30 years more people will receive formal
education than in all of human history thus far.[30]

[edit]
Philosophy

Main article: Philosophy of
education

John Locke's work Some
Thoughts Concerning Education was written in 1693 and still reflects
traditional education priorities in the Western world

Philosophy of
education is a "the philosophical study of education and its problems...its
central subject matter is education, and its methods are those of philosophy".[31]
As such, it is a field of applied
philosophy. Drawing from fields of philosophy (metaphysics, epistemology, axiology, etc.)
and its approaches (speculative,
prescriptive, and/or analytic),
philosophy of education seeks to address questions regarding the aims of
education, education policy, and
curriculum, as well as the
process of learning, to
name a few.[32]
Put another way, philosophy of education is the philosophical study of the
purpose, process, nature and ideals of education. For example, it might study
what constitutes upbringing and education, the values and norms revealed through
upbringing and educational practices, the limits and legitimization of education
as an academic discipline, and the relation between educational theory
and practice.

[edit]
Psychology

Main article: Educational
psychology

A class size experiment in the United States found
that attending small classes for 3 or more years in the early grades increased
high
school graduation rates of students
from low income families.[33]

Educational
psychology is the study of how humans learn in educational settings, the
effectiveness of educational interventions, the psychology of teaching, and the
social psychology of
schools as organizations. Although the
terms "educational psychology" and "school psychology" are often used
interchangeably, researchers and theorists are likely to be identified as educational
psychologists, whereas practitioners in schools or school-related settings
are identified as school
psychologists. Educational psychology is concerned with the processes of
educational attainment in the general population and in sub-populations such as
gifted children and those with
specific disabilities.

Educational psychology can in part be understood through its relationship
with other disciplines. It is informed primarily by psychology, bearing a
relationship to that discipline analogous to the relationship between medicine and biology.
Educational psychology in turn informs a wide range of specialities within
educational studies, including instructional
design, educational
technology, curriculum development, organizational
learning, special education and
classroom
management. Educational psychology both draws from and contributes to cognitive science and
the learning sciences. In
universities, departments of educational psychology are usually housed within
faculties of education, possibly accounting for the lack of representation of
educational psychology content in introductory psychology textbooks (Lucas,
Blazek, & Raley, 2006).

[edit]
Sociology

Main article: Sociology of
education

The sociology of
education is the study of how social institutions and forces affect
educational processes and outcomes, and vice versa. By many, education is
understood to be a means of overcoming handicaps, achieving greater equality and
acquiring wealth and status for all (Sargent 1994). Learners may be motivated by
aspirations for progress and betterment. Education is perceived as a place where
children can develop according to their unique needs and potentialities.[34]
The purpose of education can be to develop every individual to their full
potential. The understanding of the goals and means of educational socialization processes
differs according to the sociological
paradigm used.

[edit]
Education in the
Developing World

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for verification.
Please
help improve this article by adding reliable
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and removed.
(April 2010)

World map indicating Education Index (according to
2007/2008 Human Development
Report)

In developing countries, the number and seriousness of the problems faced are
naturally greater.[citation
needed] People in more remote or agrarian areas are sometimes
unaware of the importance of education. However, many countries have an active
Ministry
of Education, and in many subjects, such as foreign
language learning, the degree of education is actually much higher than in
industrialized countries; for example, it is not at all uncommon for students in
many developing countries to be reasonably fluent in multiple foreign languages,
whereas this is much more of a rarity in the supposedly "more educated"
countries where much of the population is in fact monolingual.

Universal
primary education is one of the eight Millennium Development Goals and great
improvements have been achieved in the past decade, yet a great deal remains to
be done.[35]
Researchers at the Overseas
Development Institute indicate the main obstacles to greater funding from
donors include: donor priorities, aid architecture, and the lack of evidence and
advocacy.[35]
Additionally, Transparency
International has identified corruption in the education sector as a major
stumbling block to achieving Universal primary education in Africa.[36]
Furthermore, demand in the developing world for improved educational access is
not as high as one would expect as governments avoid the recurrent costs
involved and there is economic pressure on those parents who prefer their
children making money in the short term over any long-term benefits of
education. Recent studies on child labor and poverty have suggested that when
poor families reach a certain economic threshold where families are able to
provide for their basic needs, parents return their children to school. This has
been found to be true, once the threshold has been breached, even if the
potential economic value of the children's work has increased since their return
to school.

But without capacity, there is no development. A study conducted by the UNESCO
International Institute for Educational Planning indicates that stronger
capacities in educational planning and management may have an important
spill-over effect on the system as a whole.[37]
Sustainable capacity development requires complex interventions at the
institutional, organizational and individual levels that could be based on some
foundational principles:

national leadership and ownership should be the touchstone of any
intervention;

strategies must be context relevant and context specific;

they should embrace an integrated set of complementary interventions,
though implementation may need to proceed in steps;

partners should commit to a long-term investment in capacity development,
while working towards some short-term achievements;

outside intervention should be conditional on an impact assessment of
national capacities at various levels.

Russia has more academic
graduates than any other country in Europe.

A lack of good universities, and a low acceptance rate for good universities,
is evident in countries with a high population density. In some countries, there
are uniform, over structured, inflexible centralized programs from a central
agency that regulates all aspects of education.

Due to globalization, increased
pressure on students in curricular activities

Removal of a certain percentage of students for improvisation of academics
(usually practised in schools, after 10th grade)

India is now developing technologies that will skip land
based phone and internet lines. Instead, India launched EDUSAT, an education
satellite that can reach more of the country at a greatly reduced cost.
There is also an initiative started by the OLPC foundation, a
group out of MIT Media Lab and
supported by several major corporations to develop a $100
laptop to deliver educational
software. The laptops are widely available as of 2008. The laptops are sold
at cost or given away based on donations. These will enable developing countries
to give their children a digital education, and
help close the digital divide across the
world.

In Africa, NEPAD has launched an "e-school
programme" to provide all 600,000 primary and high schools with computer
equipment, learning materials and internet access within
10 years. Private groups, like The
Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, are working to give more
individuals opportunities to receive education in developing countries through
such programs as the Perpetual Education
Fund. An International
Development Agency project called nabuur.com, started with the
support of former American President Bill Clinton, uses the Internet to
allow co-operation by individuals on issues of social development.

[edit]
Internationalization

Education is becoming increasingly international. Not only are the materials
becoming more influenced by the rich international environment, but exchanges
among students at all levels are also playing an increasingly important role. In
Europe, for example, the Socrates-Erasmus Programme[38]
stimulates exchanges across European universities. Also, the Soros Foundation [39]
provides many opportunities for students from central Asia and eastern Europe.
Programmes such as the International
Baccalaureate have contributed to the internationalisation of education.
Some scholars argue that, regardless of whether one system is considered better
or worse than another, experiencing a different way of education can often be
considered to be the most important, enriching element of an international
learning experience.[40]

[edit]
See also

For a topical guide to this subject, see Outline of
education.

Education
portal

Schools
portal

University
portal

Book:Education

Books are
collections of articles that can be downloaded or ordered in
print.

Academic
dishonesty

Autodidacticism

Behavior
modification

Classical
education

Classroom of the
future

Collaborative
learning

Comparative
education

Developmental
Education

Dropping out

Education Day

Education Index

Education reform

Educational
animation

Educational
research

Entrepreneurship
education

Experiential
education

Gifted education

Glossary
of education-related terms

Graduate education

Home schooling

Indoctrination

Instructional
technology

Language education

Learning 2.0

Learning by
teaching (LdL)

Learning community

Learning sciences

Legal education

Life skills

Lifelong education

Online learning
community

Over-education

Peace education

Public education

Religious
education

Remedial education

Residential
education

School

School of the
Future

Single-sex
education

Synchronous
learning

Taxonomy
of Educational Objectives

Traditional
knowledge

Tutoring

Virtual education

[edit]
References

^ Etymonline.com

^ UNESCO,
Education For All Monitoring Report 2008, Net Enrollment Rate in primary
education

^ "Examples
of subjects". Curriculumonline.gov.uk. http://www.curriculumonline.gov.uk/Default.htm. Retrieved 2009-04-20.

^ "Dunn and Dunn".
Learningstyles.net. http://www.learningstyles.net/. Retrieved 2009-04-20.

^ "Biographer
of Renzulli". Indiana.edu. http://www.indiana.edu/~intell/renzulli.shtml. Retrieved 2009-04-20.

^ Thomas Armstrong's website detailing Multiple Intelligences

^ "Keirsey web-site". Keirsey.com. http://www.keirsey.com/. Retrieved 2009-04-20.

^ "Type Delineator description". Algonquincollege.com. http://www.algonquincollege.com/edtech/gened/styles.html. Retrieved 2009-04-20.

^ Swassing,
R. H., Barbe, W. B., & Milone, M. N. (1979). The Swassing-Barbe
Modality Index: Zaner-Bloser Modality Kit. Columbus, OH: Zaner-Bloser.

^ Barbe, W.
B., & Swassing, R. H., with M. N. Milone. (1979). Teaching through
modality strengths: Concepts and practices. Columbus, OH: Zaner-Bloser,

^ Pashler, Harold;
McDonald, Mark; Rohrer, Doug; Bjork, Robert (2009), "Learning Styles: Concepts
and Evidence", Psychological Science in the Public Interest 9
(3): 105–119

^ "Learning modality description from the Learning Curve
website". Library.thinkquest.org. http://library.thinkquest.org/C005704/content_hwl_learningmodalities.php3. Retrieved 2010-06-19.

^
"Guy Claxton speaking on What's The Point of School?".
dystalk.com. http://www.dystalk.com/talks/49-whats-the-point-of-school. Retrieved 2009-04-23.

^ [1]

^ Tremblay, Eric. "(2010) Educating the Mobile
Generation – using personal cell phones as audience response systems in
post-secondary science teaching. Journal of Computers in Mathematics and
Science Teaching, 29(2), 217-227. Chesapeake, VA: AACE.". http://editlib.org/p/32314. Retrieved 2010-11-05.

^ Blurton, Craig. "New Directions of ICT-Use in Education" (PDF). http://www.unesco.org/education/educprog/lwf/dl/edict.pdf. Retrieved 2007-02-06.

^ ICT in Education

^ Potashnik, M. and Capper, J.. "Distance Education:Growth and Diversity" (PDF). http://www.worldbank.org/fandd/english/pdfs/0398/0110398.pdf. Retrieved 2007-02-06.

^ Whyte,
Cassandra Bolyard (1989) Student Affairs-The Future.Journal of College Student
Development, v30 n1 p86-89.

^ Taghioff, Daniel. "Seeds of Consensus—The Potential Role for Information and
Communication Technologies in Development.". Archived from the
original on 2003-10-12. http://web.archive.org/web/20031012140402/http://www.btinternet.com/~daniel.taghioff/index.html. Retrieved 2003-10-12.

^ Open
University of the United Kingdom Official website

^ Indira
Gandhi National Open University Official website

^ Hanushek,
Economic Outcomes and School Quality

^ UCLA
Economics 183 Lecture from Professor Boustan

^ Daron
Acemoglu, Simon Johnson, and James A. Robinson, "The Colonial Origins of
Comparative Development: An Empirical Investigation." American Economic
Review 91,no.5 (December 2001):1369–1401.

^ Eric A.
Hanushek, and Ludger Woessmann, "The role of cognitive skills in economic
development." Journal of Economic Literature 46,no.3 (September
2008):607–608.

^ Jacob
Mincer, "The distribution of labor incomes: a survey with special reference to
the human capital approach." Journal of Economic Literature 8,no.1
(March 1970):1–26.

^ See, for
example, David Card, "Causal effect of education on earnings," in Handbook
of labor economics, edited by Orley Ashenfelter and David Card. Amsterdam:
North-Holland, 1999:1801–1863; James J. Heckman, Lance J. Lochner, and Petra
E. Todd., "Earnings functions, rates of return and treatment effects: The
Mincer equation and beyond," in Handbook of the Economics of Education,
edited by Eric A. Hanushek and Finis Welch. Amsterdam: North Holland,
2006:307–458.

^ Samuel
Bowles and Herbert Gintis, Schooling in Capitalist America: Educational
Reform and the Contradictions of Economic Life (Basic Books, 1976)

^ Robinson,
K.: Schools Kill Creativity. TED Talks, 2006, Monterrey,
CA, USA.

^
Noddings, Nel (1995),
Philosophy of Education, Boulder, CO: Westview Press, p. 1, ISBN 0-8133-8429-X

^ Noddings
1995, pp. 1–6

^
Finn, J. D., Gerber, S. B., Boyd-Zaharias, J. (2005). Small classes in the
early grades, academic achievement, and graduating from high school.
Journal of Educational Psychology, 97, 214–233.

^ Schofield,
K. (1999). "The Purposes of Education", Queensland State Education: 2010,
[Online] URL: www.aspa.asn.au/Papers/eqfinalc.PDF [Accessed 2002, Oct 28]

^ a
b
Liesbet Steer and Geraldine Baudienville 2010. What drives donor financing of basic education? London: Overseas
Development Institute.

^ http://www.transparency.org/news_room/latest_news/press_releases/2010/2010_02_23_aew_launch_en

^ de Grauwe,
A. 2009. Without capacity, there is no development. Paris: UNESCO-IIPE
[2].

^ "Socrates-Erasmus Programme". Erasmus.ac.uk. http://www.erasmus.ac.uk/. Retrieved 2010-06-19.

^ "Soros Foundation". Soros.org. http://www.soros.org/. Retrieved 2010-06-19.

^ Dubois, H.
F. W., Padovano, G., & Stew, G. (2006) Improving international nurse
training: an American–Italian case study. International Nursing Review,
53(2): 110–116.

[edit]
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Officially known as Myanmar.
3 Sometimes
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1 Territories
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Timor1 · Fiji ·
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and Futuna

1 Transcontinental
country.

v • d • e

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states

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Bolivia ·
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Chile ·
Colombia ·
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Guyana ·
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Trinidad
and Tobago1 · Uruguay ·
Venezuela

Dependencies
and
territories

Aruba1 /
Bonaire1 /
Curaçao1
(Netherlands) · Falkland
Islands / South Georgia and the South Sandwich
Islands (United
Kingdom) 2 ·
French
Guiana (France)

1
Territories
also in or commonly considered to be part of North
America.  2
Territories
also in or commonly considered to be part of Antarctica.

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