Christian theology

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The Prophetess Anna, Rembrandt,
1631

See also: History of
Christian theology and Outline of
Christian theology

"Christian doctrine" redirects here. For the United States Court case
known by that name, see G.L.
Christian and associates v. US.

Christian theology is based largely
upon the Canonical Gospels,
letters and books of the New Testament and to a
lesser degree the Old Testament, being a
discourse concerning Christian logic. Christian
theologians use Biblical exegesis, rational analysis, and
argument to understand, explain,
test, critique, defend or promote
Christianity. Theology might be undertaken to help the theologian understand
Christianity more truly,[1]
make comparisons between
Christianity and other traditions,[2]
defend
Christianity against critics, facilitate Christianity's reform,[3]
assist in the propagation of
Christianity,[4]
draw on the resources of the Christian tradition to address some present
situation or need,[5]
or for a variety of other reasons.

Systematic theology
is a discipline of Christian theology that attempts to formulate an orderly,
rational, and coherent account of the Christian faith and beliefs. Systematic
theology draws on the foundational sacred texts of
Christianity, while simultaneously investigating the development of Christian
doctrine over the course of history, particularly through philosophy, science
and ethics. Inherent to a system of theological thought is that a method is
developed, one which can be applied both broadly and particularly. Systematic
theology will typically explore: God, the attributes of God, the
Trinity, Revelation,
Creation, Divine providence, Theodicy, Christology, Pneumatology, doctrine on
humanity, Hamartiology, Soteriology, Ecclesiology, sacraments, Eschatology, Christian
living, the afterlife, and
statements on other religions.

Christian theology has permeated much of Western culture,
especially in pre-modern Europe.

Contents

1 Prolegomena: Scripture as
the basis of theology

1.1 Biblical
revelation

1.2 Biblical
inspiration

1.3 Biblical
authority

1.4 Biblical
canon

2 Theology proper:
God

2.1 Attributes of
God

2.1.1 Classification

2.1.2 Enumeration

2.1.3 Monotheism

2.1.4 Trinity

2.2 God the
Father

2.3 Christology and
Christ

2.3.1 Christ

2.3.2 Trinitarian
Ecumenical Councils

2.3.3 Attributes of
Christ

2.3.3.1 God as
Son

2.3.3.2 Person of
Christ

2.3.3.3 Incarnation

2.3.3.4 Hypostatic
union

2.3.3.5 Other
Christological concerns

2.3.4 Approaches to
Christology

2.3.5 Works of
Christ

2.4 Pneumatology: Holy
Spirit

3 Cosmology: Things
created

3.1 World

3.2 Anthropology:
Humanity

3.2.1 Components

3.2.2 Origin of
humanity

3.2.3 Death and
afterlife

3.3 Angelology:
Angels

3.3.1 Members of the
heavenly host

3.3.2 Demonology: Fallen
angels

3.4 Heaven

3.5 Hell

3.6 Theodicy: Allowance of
evil

4 Hamartiology:
Sin

4.1 Sin

4.2 Fall of Man

4.3 Original sin

4.4 Total
depravity

5 Salvation

5.1 Traditional
focus

5.2 Distinct
schools

5.3 Catholic
soteriology

5.4 Comparison between
Protestants

6 Ecclesiology:
Church

6.1 Ecclesiastical
polity

6.2 Priesthood

6.3 Church
discipline

6.4 Missiology

6.5 Sacrament

6.5.1 Eucharist

6.5.2 Baptism

7 Eschatology: Last
Things

7.1 Approaches to prophetic
interpretation

8 See also

9 References

10 Bibliography

[edit]
Prolegomena: Scripture as the basis of theology

[edit]
Biblical revelation

Main article: Supernatural
revelation

Part
of a series on

Christianity

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Revelation is
the revealing or disclosing, or making something obvious through active or
passive communication with God, and can originate directly from a God, or through an
agent, such as an angel. One who has
experienced such contact is often called a prophet. Christianity considers
the Bible as
divinely or supernaturally
revealed or inspired. Such revelation does not always require the presence
of God or an angel. For instance, in the concept called of interior locution by
Roman Catholics,
supernatural revelation can include just an inner voice heard by the
recipient.

Thomas Aquinas first
described in two types of revelation in Christianity as general revelation
and special revelation.
General revelation occurs through observation of the created order. Such
observations can logically lead to important conclusions, such as the existence
of God and some of God's attributes. General revelation is also an element of Christian
apologetics. Certain specifics, such as the Trinity and the Incarnation, are revealed in
the teachings in the Scriptures and can not otherwise be deduced except by
special revelation.

[edit]
Biblical inspiration

Main article: Biblical
inspiration

Rembrandt's The Evangelist
Matthew Inspired by an Angel.

Christianity regards varied
collections of books
known as the Bible
as authoritative and written by human authors under the inspiration of the Holy
Spirit.

Biblical inspiration is the doctrine in Christian theology concerned with the
divine origin
of the Bible and
what the Bible teaches about itself. Different groups understand the meaning and
details of inspiration in different ways. Most such as Evangelicals and Catholics, see the Bible
as a truly human product whose creation was superintended by the Holy
Spirit, preserving the authors' works from error without eliminating their
specific concerns, situation, or style. This divine involvement, they say,
allowed the biblical writer to reveal God's own message to the immediate
recipients of the writings and to those who would come later, communicating
God's message without corrupting it.

In many passages of the Bible it claims divine inspiration of itself. Besides
the direct accounts of written revelation, such as Moses receiving the Ten Commandments, the
prophets of the
Old Testament frequently claimed that their message was divine with the formula
"Thus says the Lord" or "the word
of Lord came to me...". In the New
Testament, Jesus
treats the Old Testament as authoritative and says it "cannot be broken" in John
10:34–36. 2 Peter 2
Pet 1:20-21 says that "no prophecy of Scripture ... was ever produced by the
will of man, but men spoke from God as they were carried along by the Holy
Spirit" That epistle also claims divine authority for the Apostles in verse 3:2
and includes Paul's letters as being counted with the Scriptures in verse
3:16.

Christians who receive the
Bible as authoritative generally think that the Bible is "breathed out by God". In English, 2 Timothy
3.16-17 reads: "All scripture is given by inspiration of God and is useful for
teaching, rebuking, correction and training in righteousness". The unsual word
theopneustos is rendered in some modern English translations
as"God-breathed" (NIV) or "breathed out by God" (ESV) to avoid
the word inspiration altogether, since its connotation, unlike its
Latin root, leans toward breathing in instead of breathing
out.

Some argue that Biblical inspiration can be corroborated by examining the
weight of the Bible's moral teaching and its prophecies about the
future and their fulfillment. Corroboration of this sort is a form of Christian
apologetics. Others maintain that the authority of the Church and its
counsels should carry more or less weight in formulating the doctrine of
inspiration.

[edit]
Biblical authority

Main articles: Biblical
infallibility and Biblical
inerrancy

Christianity regards the collections of books
known as the Bible
as authoritative and written by human authors under the inspiration of the Holy
Spirit. Some Christians believe that the Bible is inerrant (totally
without error and free from contradiction, including the historical and
scientific parts)[6]
or infallible
(inerrant on issues of faith and practice but not necessarily history or
science).[7][8]

In addition, for some Christians, it may be inferred that the Bible cannot
both refer to itself as being divinely inspired and also be errant or fallible.
For if the Bible were divinely inspired, then the source of inspiration being
divine, would not be subject to fallibility or error in that which is produced.
For them, the doctrines of the divine inspiration, infallibility, and inerrancy,
are inseparably tied together. The idea of Biblical integrity is a further
concept of infallibility, by suggesting that current Biblical text is complete
and without error, and that the "integrity" of Biblical text has never been
corrupted or degraded.[6]
Historians note, or claim, that the doctrine of the Bible's infallibility was
adopted hundreds of years after those books were written.

[edit]
Biblical canon

Main article: Biblical canon

See also: Development
of the New Testament canon and Septuagint

The Protestant Old Testament is synonymous withg the "Hebrew Scriptures"
included in the Jewish canon, but not the
Catholic Old Testament, which contains additional texts. Both Catholics and
Protestants have the same 27-book New Testament Canon. Roman Catholic and
Eastern Christians recognize 73 books as canonical, with 46 books for the Old
Testament 7 more than Protestants.

The Old Testament canon entered into Christian use in the Septuagint, a Greek
translation with a few books in Greek originally. In addition to the Septuagint,
Christianity subsequently added various writings that would become the New
Testament. Somewhat different lists of accepted works continued to develop in
antiquity. In the 4th century a series of synods, most notably at the Synod
of Hippo in AD 393, produced a list of texts equal to the 46 book canon of
the Old Testament that Catholics use today (and the 27-book canon of the New
Testament that all use). A definitive list did not come from any early
Ecumenical Council.[9]
Also, c. 400, Jerome produced a definitive Latin
edition of the Bible, the contents of which, at the insistence of the Pope,
was in accord with the earlier Synods. With the benefit of hindsight it can be
said that this process effectively set the New Testament canon, although there
are examples of other canonical lists in use after this time.

During the Protestant
Reformation, certain reformers proposed different canonical lists of the Old
Testament. The texts that are present in the Septuagint, but not included in the
Jewish canon, fell out of favor and, in time, they would come to be removed from
Protestant canons. These texts are referred to as Deuterocanonical
books in Catholic Bibles, whereas in a Protestant context they are referred
to as the Apocrypha. The "New Testament
apocrypha" has a very different meaning. It is a poorly defined group of early
writings in which, general, none ever achieved a acceptance by any widespread
group.

v ·
d ·
eBooks of
the Bible

Major divisions

Old
Testament
(Protocanon)

Genesis · Exodus · Leviticus · Numbers · Deuteronomy · Joshua · Judges · Ruth · 1-2
Samuel · 1-2
Kings · 1-2
Chronicles ·
Ezra · Nehemiah · Esther · Job · Psalms · Proverbs · Ecclesiastes · Song · Isaiah · Jeremiah · Lamentations · Ezekiel · Daniel · Hosea · Joel · Amos · Obadiah · Jonah · Micah · Nahum · Habakkuk · Zephaniah · Haggai · Zechariah · Malachi

Deuterocanon
and
Apocrypha

Catholic,
Orthodox:

Tobit
· Judith · Additions
to Esther · 1
Maccabees · 2
Maccabees  · Wisdom
· Sirach
· Baruch
& Letter
of Jeremiah · Additions
to Daniel (Susanna,
Song
of the Three Children, Bel
and the Dragon)

Orthodox:

1
Esdras ·
2
Esdras ·
Prayer
of Manasseh · Psalm
151 · 3
Maccabees · 4
Maccabees · Odes

Ethiopian
Orthodox:

Enoch · Jubilees · 1-3
Meqabyan · Rest
of Baruch

New
Testament

Matthew •
Mark •
Luke •
John •
Acts •
Romans •
1
Corinthians • 2
Corinthians • Galatians •
Ephesians •
Philippians •
Colossians •
1
Thessalonians • 2
Thessalonians • 1
Timothy • 2
Timothy  • Titus
• Philemon •
Hebrews •
James •
1
Peter • 2
Peter • 1
John • 2
John • 3
John • Jude •
Revelation

Canon

Development:
Old
Testament · New
Testament · Christian
Canon
Others: Deuterocanon · Apocrypha: Biblical · New
Testament · Christian
canons

More divisions

Chapters
and verses · Pentateuch · History · Wisdom · Major and Minor prophets · Gospels (synoptic) · Epistles (Pauline, Johannine,
pastoral,
general) · Apocalyptic
literature

Manuscripts

Septuagint · Samaritan
Pentateuch · Dead Sea
scrolls · Targum · Diatessaron · Muratorian
fragment · Peshitta · Vetus
Latina · Masoretic
Text · New
Testament manuscripts

See also

English
Bible translations ·
Authorship · Other
books cited in Scripture · Studies · Synod of
Hippo · Textual
criticism

Category · Portal · WikiProject · Book:Bible

v ·
d ·
ePart of a series on the Biblical
canon

Background

Development
of the Jewish Bible canon - Samaritan
Pentateuch

Christian canons

Christian
Biblical canons - Development
of the Christian Biblical canon - Synod of
Hippo
Decretum
Gelasianum - Council of
Trent

Thirty-Nine
Articles - Westminster
Confession of Faith - Synod of
Jerusalem

Christianity
portal

[edit]
Theology proper: God

Main article: God in
Christianity

In the Christianity, God is the creator and preserver of the
universe. God is the sole ultimate power in the
universe, but is distinct from it. The Bible never speaks of God as
impersonal. Instead, it refers to him in personal
terms — who speaks, sees, hears, acts, and loves. God is understood to have
a will and personality
and is an all powerful, divine and benevolent being. He is
represented in Scripture as being primarily
concerned with people and their salvation.[10]

[edit]
Attributes of God

Part of
a series on

Attributes of God
in
Christian theology

Aseity
Eternity
Graciousness
Holiness
Immanence
Immutability
Impassibility
Impeccability
Incorporeality
Jealousy
Love
Mission
Omnibenevolence
Omnipotence
Omnipresence
Omniscience
Oneness
Providence
Righteousness
Simplicity
Transcendence
Trinity
Veracity

v · d · e

Main article: Attributes of
God

[edit]
Classification

Many Reformed theologians
distinguish between the communicable attributes (those that human beings
can also have) and the incommunicable attributes (those which belong to
God alone).[11]
Donald Macleod, however, argues that "All the suggested classifications are
artificial and misleading".[12]

Many of these attributes are "negative", meaning that they only say what God is not. For
example, saying he is immutable is saying that he does not change.

[edit]
Enumeration

Some attributes ascribed to God in Christian theology[13]
are:

Aseity—
That "God is so independent that he does not need us."[14]
It is based on Acts 17:25, where it says
that God "is not served by human hands, as if he needed anything" (NIV).
This is often related to God's self-existence and his
self-sufficiency.

Eternity— That God is
everlasting.

Graciousness—
That God is gracious. graciousness of
God is a key tenet of Christianity.

Holiness—
That God is separate from sin and incorruptible. Noting the refrain of "Holy, holy,
holy" in Isaiah 6:3 and Revelation 4:8, R. C.
Sproul points out that "only once in sacred Scripture is an attribute of
God elevated to the third degree... The Bible never says that God is love,
love, love."[15]

Immanence— That God is the
opposite of Transcendence.

Immutability—
That God is immutable. Immutability
means God cannot change.

Impassibility— That God
is impassible. The doctrine of the Impassibility of God is
a controversial one. It refers to the inability of God to suffer.

Impeccability— That God
is impeccable. The Impeccability of God is
closely related to his holiness. It means that he cannot sin.

Incorporeality— That
God is incorporeal. The Incorporeality or
Spirituality of God refers to him being a spirit. This is derived from
Jesus' statement
in John 4:24, "God is
spirit."

Incomprehensibility— That God is not able to be fully known by us.

Love— That God
is love. 1 John 4:16 says "God is love."
D. A.
Carson speaks of the "difficult doctrine of the love of God."[16]

Mission— That
God is While the Mission of God is not
traditionally included in this list, David Bosch has argued
that "mission is not
primarily an activity of the church, but an attribute of God."[17]

Omnibenevolence— That
God is omnibevolent. Omnibenevolence of God
refers to him being "all good".

Omnipotence— That God is
omnipotent. Omnipotence of God refers
to him being all powerful.

Omnipresence— That God is
omnipresent. Omnipresence of God
refers to him being present everywhere.

Omniscience— That God is
omniscient. Omniscience of God refers
to him being "all knowing".

Oneness— That God is one; that he is not partly this and partly that, but
that whatever he is, he is so entirely. See also Monotheism and Divine simplicity.

Providence— That God
is providence. While the Providence of God
usually refers to his activity in the world, it also implies his care for the
universe, and is thus an attribute. A distinction is usually made between
"general providence" which refers to God's continuous upholding the existence
and natural order of the universe, and "special providence" which refers to
God's extraordinary intervention in the life of people.[18]
See also Sovereignty.

Righteousness— That God
is righteous. The Righteousness of God may
refer to his holiness, to his justice, or to his saving
activity.

Transcendence—
That God is outside space and time, and therefore eternal and unable to be
changed by forces within the universe.[19]
It is the "opposite" of immanence.

Triune—
The Christian God is understood (by Trinitarians) to be a Trinity of Father, Son,
and Holy Spirit; a single
infinite being who is both within and beyond nature. Because the persons of
the Trinity
represent a personal relation even on the level of God to himself, he is
personal both in his relation toward us and in his relation toward himself.

Veracity— That God
is Veracity of God means his truth-telling. Titus 1:2 refers to
"God, who does not lie."

Wisdom—
That God is wise. Romans 16:27
speaks about the "only wise God".

[edit]
Monotheism

Christ praying to God the Father in Gethsemane, Heinrich Hofmann,
1890.

Christians believe that the God worshiped by the faithful Hebrew people of
the pre-Christian era has always revealed himself as he did through Jesus; but that this
was never obvious until the Word of the Lord, the revelation of God, became
flesh and dwelt among us (see John 1). Also, despite the fact
that the Angel of the Lord
spoke to the Patriarchs, revealing God to them, it has always been only through
the Spirit of God granting them
understanding, that men have been able to later perceive that they had been
visited by God himself.

This belief gradually developed into the modern formulation of the Trinity, which is
the doctrine that God is a single entity (YHWH), but that there is a real
"threeness" in God's single being, which has always been evident albeit not
understood. This mysterious "threeness" has been described as, for want of
better terms, hypostases in the Greek
language (subsistences in Latin), and "persons"
in English. Nonetheless Christians stress that they only believe in one God. To
believe in three gods would be Tritheism.

Most Christian churches teach the Trinity, as opposed to unitarian
monotheistic beliefs. Historically, most Christian churches have taught that the
nature of God is a mystery, in the original, technical meaning; something
that must be revealed by special revelation
rather than deduced through general
revelation.

Christian orthodox traditions (Eastern Orthodox, Roman Catholic, and
Protestant) follow this decision, which was codified in 381 and reached its full
development through the work of the Cappadocian Fathers.
They consider God to be a triune entity, called the Trinity, comprising the three
"Persons" God the Father, God the
Son, and God the Holy Spirit,
the three of this unity are described as being "of the same substance" (ὁμοούσιος). The true nature
of an infinite God, however, is beyond definition, and "the word 'person' is but
an imperfect expression of the idea.

Some critics contend that because of the adoption of a tripartite conception
of deity, Christianity is actually a form of Tritheism or Polytheism.
This concept dates from teachings which claimed that Jesus, having appeared
later in the Bible than his "Father," had to be a secondary, lesser, and
therefore "distinct" God. For Jews and Muslims, the idea
of God as a trinity is heretical - it is considered akin
to polytheism. Christians
overwhelmingly assert that monotheism is central to the Christian faith, as the
very Nicene Creed (among others) which gives the orthodox Christian definition
of the Trinity does begin with: "I believe in one God".

Christianity has always held to Monotheism. In the 3rd
century, Tertullian claimed that God
exists as the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit—the three personae of one and
the same substance.[20]
To Trinitarian
Christians God the Father is not at
all a separate god from the Son (of whom Jesus is the incarnation) and the
Holy
Spirit, the other hypostases (persons) of the Christian
Godhead.[20]
According to the Nicene Creed, the Son
(Jesus Christ) is "eternally begotten of the Father", indicating that their
divine Father-Son relationship is not tied to an event within time or
human history.

In Christianity, the doctrine of the
Trinity states that God
is one
being who exists, simultaneously and eternally, as a mutual
indwelling of three persons: the Father, the Son
(incarnate as Jesus
of Nazareth),
and the Holy Spirit (or Holy Ghost).
Since earliest Christianity, one's salvation has been very closely related to
the concept of a triune God, although the Trinitarian doctrine was not
formalized until the 4th century. At that time, the Emperor
Constantine convoked the First Council of
Nicaea, to which all bishops of the empire were invited to attend. Pope Sylvester I did
not attend but sent his legate. The council, among
other things, decreed the original Nicene Creed.

[edit]
Trinity

"Holy Trinity" from the Tretyakov Gallery, Moscow,
by Andrei Rublev, c. 1400,
but more properly known as the "Hospitality of Abraham." The three angels symbolize the
Trinity.

Main article: Trinity

For most Christians, beliefs about God are enshrined in the doctrine of Trinitarianism, which
holds that the three persons of God together form a single God. The doctrines
were largely formalized at the Council of Nicea
and are enshrined in the Nicaene creed. The
Trinitarian view emphasizes that God has a will, and that God the Son has two wills,
divine and human, though these are never in conflict, see also Hypostatic union.
However, this point is disputed by Oriental Orthodox Christians, who hold that
God the Son has only one will of unified divinity and humanity (see Miaphysitism).

The Christian doctrine of the Trinity teaches the unity of Father, Son, and
Holy
Spirit as three persons in one Godhead.[21]
The doctrine states that God is the Triune God, existing as
three persons, or in the Greek hypostases,[22]
but one being.[23]
Personhood in the Trinity does not match the common Western understanding of
"person" as used in the English language—it does not imply an "individual,
self-actualized center of free will and conscious activity."[24]:pp. 185-6. To the ancients,
personhood "was in some sense individual, but always in community as well."[24]:p.186 Each person is
understood as having the one identical essence or nature, not merely similar
natures.) Since the beginning of the 3rd
century[25]
the doctrine of the Trinity has been stated as "the one God exists in three
Persons and one substance, Father, Son,
and Holy Spirit."[26]

Trinitarianism, belief in the Trinity, is a mark of Catholicism, Eastern and Oriental Orthodoxy as
well as of the "mainstream traditions" arising from the Protestant
Reformation, such as Anglicanism, Methodism, Lutheranism, Baptist, and Presbyterianism. The
Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church describes the Trinity as "the
central dogma of Christian theology".[26]
This doctrine contrasts with Nontrinitarian positions
which include Unitarianism, Oneness
and Modalism. A small minority of
Christians hold non trinitarian views, largely coming under the heading of Unitarianism.

Most, if not all, Christians believe that God is spirit,[John 4:24] an uncreated, omnipotent, and eternal
being, the creator and sustainer of all things, who works the redemption of the
world through his Son, Jesus Christ. With this background, belief in the divinity of
Christ and the Holy Spirit is expressed as the doctrine of the Trinity,[27]
which describes the single divine ousia (substance) existing as
three distinct and inseparable hypostases (persons): the Father, the Son (Jesus Christ the eternal Word), and
the Holy
Spirit.[1 Jn 5:7 ]

The Trinitarian doctrine is considered by most Christians to be a core tenet
of their faith. Since the 4th century, in both Eastern and Western Christianity,
this doctrine has been stated as "three Hypostases (or, less precisely,
persons) in one God", all three of whom, as distinct and co-eternal
persons, are of one indivisible Divine essence, a simple being. The
majority of Christians are Trinitarian and regard belief in the Trinity as a
test of true orthodoxy of belief.[28]
Nontrinitarians
typically hold that God, the Father, is supreme; that Jesus, although still
divine Lord and Savior, is the Son of God; and that the Holy
Spirit is a phenomenon akin to God's will on Earth. The holy three are separate,
yet the Son and the Holy Spirit are still seen as originating from the one,
true, and eternal God.

The New Testament does not
have the term "Trinity" and nowhere discusses the Trinity as such. Some
emphasize, however, that the New Testament does repeatedly speak of the Father,
the Son, and the Holy Spirit to "compel a trinitarian understanding of God."[10]
The doctrine developed from the biblical language used in New Testament passages
such as the baptismal formula in Matthew 28:19 and by the end of the 4th
century it was widely held in its present form.

[edit]
God the Father

Main article: God
the Father

In many monotheist religions, God is
addressed as the father, in part because of his active interest in human
affairs, in the way that a father would take an interest in his children who are
dependent on him and as a father, he will respond to humanity, his children,
acting in their best interests.[29]
In Christianity, God is called "Father" in a more literal sense, besides being
the creator and nurturer of creation, and the provider for his children.[Heb 1:2-5] [Gal 4:1-7] The Father is said to have an
eternal relation to his only begotten son, Jesus Christ, which implies an
exclusive and intimate familiarity: "No one knows the Son except the Father, and
no one knows the Father except the Son and any one to whom the Son chooses to
reveal him."[Mt. 11:27]

In Christianity, God the Father's relationship with humanity is as a father
to children—in a previously unheard-of sense—and not just as the creator and
nurturer of creation, and the provider for his children, his people. Thus,
humans in general are sometimes called children of God. To Christians,
God the Father's relationship with humanity is that of Creator and created
beings, and in that respect he is the father of all. The New Testament says, in
this sense, that the very idea of family, wherever it appears, derives its name
from God the Father,[Eph 3:15] and thus God himself is the model
of the family.

However, there is a deeper sense in which Christians believe that they are
made participants in the eternal relationship of Father and Son, through Jesus
Christ. Christians call themselves adopted children of God.[30]

In the New Testament, God the Father has a special role in his relationship
with the person of the Son, where Jesus is believed to be his Son and his
heir.[Heb. 1:2-5]. According to the Nicene Creed,
the Son (Jesus Christ) is "eternally begotten of the Father", indicating that
their divine Father-Son relationship is not tied to an event within time
or human history. See Christology. The Bible
refers to Christ, called "The Word" as
present at the beginning of God's creation.[John 1:1], not a creation himself, but equal
in the personhood of the Trinity.

In Eastern Orthodox
theology, God the Father is the "principium" (beginning), the "source" or
"origin" of both the Son and the Holy Spirit, which gives intuitive emphasis to
the threeness of persons); by comparison, Western theology explains the "origin"
of all three hypostases or persons as being in the divine nature, which gives
intuitive emphasis to the oneness of God's
being.

[edit]
Christology and
Christ

Main articles: Christology and Jesus in
Christianity

See also: Christ, Logos
(Christianity), God the Son, Son of
God, and Names
and titles of Jesus in the New Testament

Christology is the field of study within Christian theology which is
primarily concerned with the nature, person, and works of Jesus Christ, and to a lesser extent
the his works. Christology is concerned with the meeting of the human (Son of Man) and divine (God the
Son or Word of God) in the
person of Jesus.

Primary considerations include the Incarnation,
the relationship of Jesus' nature and person with the nature and person of God,
and the salvific work of Jesus. As
such, Christology is generally less concerned with the details of Jesus' life
(what he did) or teaching than with who or what he is. There have been and are
various perspectives by those who claim to be his followers since the church
began after his ascension. The controversies ultimately focused on whether and
how a human nature
and a divine
nature can co-exist in one person. The study of the inter-relationship of these
two natures is one of the preoccupations of the majority tradition.

Teachings about Jesus and testimonies about what he accomplished during his
three-year public ministry are found throughout the New Testament. Core
biblical teachings about the person of Jesus Christ may be summarized that Jesus
Christ was and forever is fully God (divine) and fully human in one sinless
person at the same time,[31]
and that through the death and resurrection of
Jesus, sinful humans can
be reconciled to God and thereby are offered salvation and the promise of eternal
life via his New Covenant. While there
have been theological disputes over the nature of Jesus, Christians believe that
Jesus is God incarnate
and "true God and true man"
(or both fully divine and fully human). Jesus, having become fully human in all
respects, suffered the pains and temptations of a mortal man, yet he did not
sin. As fully God, he defeated death and rose to life again. Scripture asserts
that Jesus was conceived, by the Holy Spirit, and born of his virgin mother
Mary without a human father.[32]
The Biblical accounts of Jesus' ministry include miracles, preaching, teaching,
healing, Death, and resurrection. The
apostle Peter, in what has become a famous proclamation of faith among
Christians since the 1st century, said, "You are the Christ, the Son of the
living God."[Matt 16:16] Most Christians now wait for the
Second Coming of Christ
when they believe he will fulfill the remaining Messianic
prophecies.

[edit]
Christ

Christ is the English term for the Greek Χριστός (Khristós) meaning "the anointed one".[33]
It is a translation of the Hebrew מָשִׁיחַ (Māšîaḥ), usually transliterated into English as Messiah. The
word is often misunderstood to be the surname of Jesus due to the numerous mentions
of Jesus Christ in the Christian Bible. The word is in fact used as
a title, hence its
common reciprocal use Christ Jesus, meaning Jesus the Anointed One or
"Jesus the Messiah. Followers of Jesus became known as Christians
because they believed that Jesus was the Christ, or Messiah, prophesied about in the Old
Testament, or Tanakh.

[edit]
Trinitarian
Ecumenical Councils

Main article: Ecumenical
councils

Major christological schisms and related early
councils

The Christological controversies came to a head over the persons of the Godhead and their
relationship with one another.

Christology was a fundamental concern from the First Council of
Nicaea (325) until the Third
Council of Constantinople (680). In this time period, the Christological
views of various groups within the broader Christian community led to
accusations of heresy, and,
infrequently, subsequent religious
persecution. In some cases, a sect's unique Christology is its chief
distinctive feature, in these cases it is common for the sect to be known by the
name given to its Christology.

The decisions made at First Council of
Nicaea and re-ratified at the First
Council of Constantinople, after several decades of ongoing controversy
during which the work of Athanasius and the Cappadocian Fathers
were influential. The language used was that the one God exists in three persons
(Father, Son, and Holy Spirit); in particular it was affirmed that the Son was
homoousios (of one
substance) with the Father. The Creed of the Nicene Council
made statements about the full divinity and full humanity of Jesus, thus
preparing the way for discussion about how exactly the divine and human come
together in the person of Christ (Christology).

Nicaea insisted that Jesus was fully divine and also human. What it did not
do was make clear how one person could be both divine and human, and how the
divine and human were related within that one person. This led to the
Christological controversies of the fourth
and 5th
centuries of the Christian era.

The Chalcedonian Creed
did not put an end to all Christological debate, but it did clarify the terms
used and became a point of reference for all other Christologies. Most of the
major branches of Christianity —Roman Catholicism, Eastern Orthodoxy, Anglicanism, Lutheranism, and Reformed —
subscribe to the Chalcedonian Christological formulation, while many branches of
Eastern Christianity - Syrian Orthodoxy,
Assyrian
Church, Coptic Orthodoxy, Ethiopian Orthodoxy,
and Armenian
Apostolicism - condemn it.

[edit]
Attributes of Christ

[edit]
God as Son

Main article: God the Son

According to the Bible, the second Person of the Trinity, because of his
eternal relation to the first Person (God as Father), is the Son of
God. He is considered coequal with the Father and Holy Spirit. He is all God and all human:
the Son of God as to his divine nature, while as to his human nature he is from
the lineage of David.[Rom 1:3,4] .[34]
The core of Jesus' self-interpretation was his "filial consciousness", his
relationship to God as child to parent in some unique sense[10]
(see Filioque
controversy). His mission on earth
proved to be that of enabling people to know God as their Father, which
Christians believe is the essence of eternal life.[Jn 17:3]

God the Son is the second person of the Trinity in Christian theology.
The doctrine
of the Trinity identifies Jesus of Nazareth as God the Son, united in essence
but distinct in person with regard to God the Father and God
the Holy
Spirit (the first and third persons of the Trinity). God the Son is
co-eternal with God the Father (and the Holy Spirit), both before Creation and
after the End (see Eschatology). So Jesus was
always "God the Son", though not revealed as such until he
also became the "Son of God" through incarnation. "Son of God"
draws attention to his humanity, whereas "God the Son" refers more generally to
his divinity, including his pre-incarnate existence. So, in Christian theology,
Jesus was always God the Son,[35]
though not revealed as such until he
also became the Son of God through incarnation.

The exact phrase "God the Son" is not in the New Testament. Later theological
use of this expression reflects what came to be standard interpretation of New
Testament references, understood to imply Jesus' divinity, but the distinction
of his person from that of the one God he called his Father. As such, the title
is associated more with the development of the doctrine of the Trinity than with
the Christological debates.
There are over 40 places in the New Testament where Jesus is given the title
"the Son of God", but scholars don't consider this to be an equivalent
expression. "God the Son" is rejected by antitrinitarians, who
view this reversal of the most common term for Christ as a doctrinal perversion
and as tending towards tritheism.

Matthew cites Jesus as saying, "Blessed are the peacemakers, for they will be
called sons of God (5:9)." The gospels go on to document a great
deal of controversy over Jesus being the Son of God, in a unique way. The
book of the Acts of the
Apostles and the letters of the New Testament, however, record the early
teaching of the first Christians — those who believed Jesus to be both
the Son of God, the Messiah, a man appointed by God, as well as God himself.
This is evident in many places, however, the early part of the book of Hebrews
addresses the issue in a deliberate, sustained argument, citing the scriptures
of the Hebrew Bible as authorities. For example, the author quotes Psalm 45:6 as
addressed by the God of Israel to Jesus.

Hebrews 1:8.
About the Son he says, "Your throne, O God, will last for ever and ever."

The author of Hebrews' description of Jesus as the exact representation of
the divine Father has parallels in a passage in Collossians.

Collossians 2:9-10. "in Christ all the fullness of the Deity lives in
bodily form"

John's gospel quotes Jesus at length regarding his relationship with his
heavenly Father. It also contains two famous attributions of divinity to
Jesus.

John 1:1. "the Word was
God" [in context, the Word is Jesus, see Christ the Logos]

John 20:28. "Thomas
said to him, 'My Lord and my God!'"

The most direct references to Jesus as God are found in various letters.

Romans 9:5.
"Christ, who is God over all"

Titus 2:13. "our
great God and Savior, Jesus Christ"

2 Peter 1:1.
"our God and Savior Jesus Christ"

The biblical basis for later trinitarian statements in creeds is the early
baptism formula found in Matthew 28.

Matthew 28:19. Go
and make disciples of all nations, baptizing them in the name [note the
singular] of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit. See also
Great Commission.

[edit]
Person of Christ

The various Christological positions, and their
names

Only divine?

Docetism
(from the Greek verb to seem) taught that Jesus was fully divine, and his
human body was only illusory. At a very early stage, various Docetic groups
arose; in particular, the gnostic sects which
flourished in the 2nd century AD tended to have Docetic theologies. Docetic
teachings were attacked by St. Ignatius of
Antioch (early 2nd century), and appear to be targeted in the canonical Epistles of John (dates
are disputed, but range from late 1st century among traditionalist scholars to
late 2nd century among critical scholars).

The Council of Nicaea rejected theologies that entirely ruled out any
humanity in Christ, affirming in the Nicene Creed the doctrine
of the Incarnation as a part of the
doctrine of the Trinity. That is, that the
second person of the Trinity became incarnate in the person Jesus and was fully human.

Only human?

See also: Jewish
Christianity

The early centuries of Christian history also had groups at the other end of
the spectrum, arguing that Jesus was an ordinary mortal. The Adoptionists taught that
Jesus was born fully human, and was adopted as God's Son when John the Baptist
baptised him[36]
because of the life he lived. Another
group, known as the Ebionites, taught that Jesus
was not God, but the human Moshiach (messiah, anointed)
prophet promised in the Hebrew Bible.

Some of these views could be described as Unitarianism (although that
is a modern term) in their insistence on the oneness of God. These views, which
directly affected how one understood the Godhead, were declared heresies by the Council of
Nicaea. Throughout much of the rest of the ancient history of Christianity,
Christologies that denied Christ's divinity ceased to have a major impact on the
life of the church.

How can he be both?

What sort of divinity?

Main article: Arianism

Arianism
affirmed that Jesus was divine, but taught that he was nevertheless a created
being (there was [a time] when he was not [in existence]), and was
therefore less divine than God the Father. The matter boiled down to one iota;
Arianism taught Homoiousia - the
belief that Jesus's divinity is similar to that of God the Father - as
opposed to Homoousia - the belief
that Jesus's divinity is the same as that of God the Father. Arius' opponents
additionally included in the term Arianism the belief that Jesus'
divinity is different from that of God the Father
(Heteroousia).

Arianism was condemned by the Council of Nicea, but remained popular in the
northern and western provinces of the empire, and continued to be the majority
view of western Europe well into the 6th century. Indeed, even the Christian
legend of Constantine's death-bed baptism involves a bishop who, in recorded
history, was an Arian.

In the modern era, a number of denominations have rejected the Nicene
doctrine of the Trinity, including the Christadelphians and
the Jehovah's
Witnesses.[37]

What sort of amalgamation?

The Christological debates following the Council of Nicaea sought to make
sense of the interplay of the human and divine in the person of Christ while
upholding the doctrine of the Trinity. Apollinaris of
Laodicea (310-390) taught that in Jesus, the divine component took the place
of the human nous (thinking - not to
be confused with thelis,
meaning intent). This however was seen as a denial of Jesus' true
humanity, and the view was condemned at the First
Council of Constantinople.

Subsequently, Nestorius of Constantinople
(386-451) initiated a view that effectively separated Jesus into two persons—one
divine and one human; the mechanism of this combination is known as
hypostases, and contrasts with hypostasis - the view
that there is no separation. Nestorius' theology was deemed heretical at the First Council of
Ephesus (431). Though, as seen by the writings of Babai the Great, the
Christology of the Church of the East is
highly similar to that of Chalcedon, many orthodox Christians (particularly in
the West) consider this group to be the perpetuation of Nestorianism; the modern
Assyrian Church of the East has at times shunned this term, as it implies
acceptance of the entire theology of Nestorius.

Various forms of Monophysitism taught that
Christ only had one nature: that the divine had either dissolved (Eutychianism), or that the
divine joined with the human as one nature in the person of Christ (Miaphysitism). A notable
monophysite theologian was Eutyches (c. 380-456). Monophysitism was rejected
as heresy at the Council of
Chalcedon in 451, which affirmed that Jesus Christ had two natures (divine
and human) joined in one person, in hypostatic union (see
Chalcedonian creed).
While Eutychianism was suppressed into oblivion by the Chalcedonians and
Miaphysites, the Miaphysite groups who dissented from the Chalcedonian formula
have persisted as the Oriental Orthodox
Church.

As theologians continued to search for a compromise between the Chalcedonian
definition and the Monophysites, other
Christologies developed that partially rejected the full humanity of Christ. Monothelitism taught that
in the one person of Jesus there were two natures, but only a divine will.
Closely related to this is Monoenergism, which held to
the same doctrine as the Monothelites, but with different terminology. These
positions were declared heresy by the Third
Council of Constantinople (the Sixth Ecumenical Council,
680-681).

[edit]
Incarnation

Main article: Incarnation
(Christianity)

The Incarnation is the belief in Christianity that the
second person in the Christian
Godhead, also known as God the Son or the Logos (Word),
"became flesh" when he was miraculously conceived in the womb of the Virgin Mary. The word
Incarnate derives from Latin (in=in or into, caro,
carnis=flesh) meaning "to make into flesh" or "to become flesh". The incarnation
is a fundamental theological teaching of orthodox
(Nicene) Christianity, based on its understanding of the New
Testament. The incarnation represents the belief that Jesus, who is the
non-created second hypostasis of
the triune God,
took on a human body and nature and became both man and God. In
the Bible its
clearest teaching is in John 1:14: "And the Word became flesh, and dwelt
among us."[38]

Jesus, believed to be both man and God, painting by
Carl Heinrich
Bloch

In the Incarnation, as traditionally defined, the divine nature of the Son
was joined but not mixed with human nature[39]
in one divine Person, Jesus Christ, who was both "truly
God and truly man". The Incarnation is commemorated and celebrated each year at
Christmas,
and also reference can be made to the Feast of the Annunciation; "different
aspects of the mystery of the Incarnation" are celebrated at Christmas and the
Annunciation.[40]

This is central to the traditional faith held by most Christians. Alternative
views on the subject (See Ebionites and the Gospel according to
the Hebrews) have been proposed throughout the centuries (see below), but
all were rejected by mainstream Christian
bodies.

In recent decades, an alternative doctrine known as "Oneness"
has been espoused among various Pentecostal groups (see
below), but has been rejected by the remainder of Christendom.

Description and development of the traditional doctrine

In the early Christian era,
there was considerable disagreement amongst Christians regarding the nature of
Christ's Incarnation. While all Christians believed that Jesus was indeed the Son of
God, the exact nature of his Sonship was contested, together with the
precise relationship of the "Father," "Son" and "Holy
Ghost" referred to in the New Testament. Though Jesus was clearly the "Son,"
what exactly did this mean? Debate on this subject raged most especially during
the first four centuries of Christianity, involving Jewish Christians, Gnostics,
followers of the Presbyter Arius of Alexandra, and adherents
of St. Athanasius the
Great, among others.

Eventually, the Christian Church accepted the teaching of St. Athanasius and
his allies, that Christ was the incarnation of the eternal second person of the
Trinity, who
was fully God and fully a man simultaneously. All divergent beliefs were defined
as heresies. This
included Docetism, which said that Jesus
was a divine being that took on human appearance but not flesh; Arianism, which
held that Christ was a created being; and Nestorianism, which
maintained that the Son of God and the man, Jesus, shared the same body but
retained two separate
natures. The Oneness belief
held by certain modern Pentecostal churches is
also seen as heretical by most mainstream Christian bodies.

The most widely-accepted definitions of the Incarnation and the nature of
Jesus were made by the early Christian Church at the First Council of
Nicaea in 325, the Council of
Ephesus in 431, and the Council of
Chalcedon in 451. These councils declared that Jesus was both fully God:
begotten from, but not created by the Father; and fully man: taking his flesh
and human nature from the Virgin Mary. These
two natures, human and divine, were hypostatically united
into the one personhood of Jesus Christ.[41]

Fortuitous and Necessary Incarnation

The link between the Incarnation and the Atonement
within systematic theological thought is complex. Within traditional models of
the Atonement, such as Substitution, Satisfaction
or Christus Victor, Christ
must be Divine in order for the Sacrifice of the Cross to be efficacious, for
human sins to be "removed" and/or "conquered". In his work The Trinity and
the Kingdom of God, Jurgen Moltmann
differentiated between what he called a "fortuitous" and a "necessary"
Incarnation. The latter gives a soteriological emphasis to the Incarnation: the
Son of God became a man so that he could save us from our sins. The former, on
the other hand, speaks of the Incarnation as a fulfilment of the Love of
God, of his desire to be present and living amidst humanity, to "walk in the
garden" with us.

Moltmann favours "fortuitous" incarnation primarily because he feels that to
speak of an incarnation of "necessity" is to do an injustice to the life of Christ.
Moltmann's work, alongside other systematic theologians, opens up avenues of
liberation Christology.

[edit]
Hypostatic union

A depiction of Jesus and Mary, the Theotokos of Vladimir (12th
century)

Main articles: Hypostatic union and Chalcedonian

In short, this doctrine states that two natures, one human and one divine,
are united in the one person of Christ. The Council further taught that each of
these natures, the human and the divine, was distinct and complete. This view is
sometimes called Dyophysite (meaning two
natures) by those who rejected it.

Hypostatic union (from the Greek for substance) is a technical term in
Christian theology employed in mainstream Christology to describe the
union of two natures, humanity and divinity, in Jesus Christ. A brief definition
of the doctrine of two natures can be given as: "Jesus Christ, who is identical
with the Son, is one person and one hypostasis in two natures: a human and a
divine."[42]

The First Council of
Ephesus recognised this doctrine and affirmed its importance, stating that
the humanity and divinity of Christ are made one according to nature and
hypostasis in the Logos.

The First Council of
Nicaea declared that the Father and the Son are of the same substance and
are co-eternal. This belief was expressed in the Nicene Creed.

Apollinaris of
Laodicea was the first to use the term hypostasis in trying to understand
the Incarnation.[43]
Apollinaris described the union of the divine and human in Christ as being of a
single nature and having a single essence - a single hypostasis.

The Nestorian Theodore of
Mopsuestia went in the other direction, arguing that in Christ there were
two natures (dyophysite) (human and
divine) and two hypostases (in the sense of "essence" or "person") that
co-existed.[44]

The Chalcedonian Creed
agreed with Theodore that there were two natures in the Incarnation. However, the Council of
Chalcedon also insisted that hypostasis be used as it was in the Trinitarian
definition: to indicate the person and not the nature as with Apollinarius.

Thus, the Council declared that in Christ there are two natures; each
retaining its own properties, and together united in one subsistence and in one
single person.[45]

As the precise nature of this union is held to defy finite human
comprehension, the hypostatic union is also referred to by the alternative term
"mystical union."

The Oriental Orthodox
Churches, having rejected the Chalcedonian Creed, were known as Monophysites because they
would only accept a definition that characterized the incarnate Son as having
one nature. The Chalcedonian "in two
natures" formula was seen as derived from and akin to a Nestorian
Christology.[46]
Contrariwise, the Chalcedonians saw the Oriental Orthodox as tending towards Eutychian Monophysitism.
However, the Oriental Orthodox have in modern ecumenical dialogue specified that
they have never believed in the doctrines of Eutyches, that they have always
affirmed that Christ's humanity is consubstantial with our own, and they thus
prefer the term "Miaphysite" to refer to themselves (a reference to Cyrillian
Christology, which used the phrase "mia physis tou theou logou
sesarkomene").

In recent times, leaders from the Eastern Orthodox and Oriental Orthodox
Churches have signed joint statements in an attempt to work towards
reunification.

[edit]
Other Christological
concerns

The sinlessness of Christ

Although Christian orthodoxy holds that Jesus was fully human, the Epistle to the
Hebrews, for example, states that Christ was 'holy and without evil'. (7:26)
The question concerning the sinlessness of Jesus Christ focuses on this seeming
paradox. Does being fully human require that one participate in the "fall" of Adam, or
could Jesus exist in an "unfallen" status as Adam and Eve did before the
"fall," according to Genesis 2-3?

Kinds of sinlessness

Evangelical writer A. Donald Macleod of Tyndale
University College and Seminary in Toronto suggests that the
sinless nature of Jesus Christ involves two elements. “First, Christ was free of
actual sin.”[47]
Studying the gospels there is no reference to Jesus praying for the forgiveness
of sin, nor confessing sin. The assertion is that Jesus did not commit sin, nor
could he be proven guilty of sin; he had no vices. In fact, he is quoted as
asking, "Can any of you prove me guilty of sin?" in John 8:46. “Secondly, he was
free from inherent sin (or "original sin").”[47]

Temptation of Christ

The temptation of Christ shown in the gospels affirms that he was
tempted. Indeed, the temptations were genuine and of a greater intensity than
normally experienced by human beings.[48]
He experienced all the frail weaknesses of humanity. Jesus was tempted through
hunger and thirst, pain and the love of his friends. Thus, the human weaknesses
could engender temptation.[49]
Nevertheless, MacLeod notes that “one crucial respect in which Christ was not
like us is that he was not tempted by anything within himself.”[49]

The temptations Christ faced focused upon his person and identity as the
incarnate Son of God. MacLeod writes, “Christ could be tempted through his
sonship.” The temptation in the wilderness and again in Gethsemane exemplifies
this arena of temptation. Regarding the temptation of performing a sign
that would affirm his sonship by throwing himself from the pinnacle of the
temple, MacLeod observes, “The sign was for himself: a temptation to seek
reassurance, as if to say, ‘the real question is my own sonship. I must forget
all else and all others and all further service until that is clear.’”[50]
MacLeod places this struggle in the context of the incarnation, “...he has
become a man and must accept not only the appearance but the reality.”[50]

Communication of attributes

The communion of attributes (Communicatio
idiomatum) of Christ’s divine and human natures is understood according
to Chalcedonian theology to mean that they exist together with neither
overriding the other. That is, both are preserved and coexist in one person.
Christ had all the properties of God and humanity. God did not stop being
God and become man. Christ was not half-God and half-human. The two natures did
not mix into a new third kind of nature. Although independent, they acted in
complete accord; when one nature acted, so did the other. The natures did not
commingle, merge, infuse each other, or replace each other. One was not
converted into the other. They remained distinct (yet acted with one
accord).

Virgin Birth

Main article: Virgin Birth of
Jesus

Holy Doors from Saint
Catherine's Monastery, Mount Sinai, depicting the Annunciation, c. 12th
century

The Gospel according to Matthew and Gospel according to Luke suggest a virgin
birth of Jesus Christ. Some now disregard or even argue against this "doctrine"
to which most denominations of
Christianity ascribe. This section looks at the Christological issues
surrounding belief or disbelief in the virgin birth.

A non-virgin birth would seem to require some form of adoptionism. This is because
a human conception and birth would seem to yield a fully human Jesus, with some
other mechanism required to make Jesus divine as well.

A non-virgin birth would seem to support the full humanity of Jesus. William
Barclay: states, “The supreme problem of the virgin birth is that it does quite
undeniably differentiate Jesus from all men; it does leave us with an incomplete
incarnation.”[51]

Barth speaks of the virgin birth as the divine sign “which accompanies and
indicates the mystery of the incarnation of the Son.”[52]

Donald MacLeod[53]
gives several Christological implications of a virgin birth:

Highlights salvation as a supernatural act of God
rather than an act of human initiative.

Avoids adoptionism (which is
virtually required if a normal birth).

Reinforces the sinlessness of Christ, especially as it relates to Christ
being outside the sin of Adam (original sin).

Relationship of Persons

The discussion of whether the three distinct persons in the Godhead of the
Trinity were of greater, equal, or lesser by comparison was also, like many
other areas of early Christology, a subject of debate. In Athenagoras of
Athens (c. 133-190) writings we find a very developed trinitarian
doctrine.[54][55]
On the one end of the spectrum was modalism, a doctrine stating
that the three persons of the Trinity were equal to the point of erasing their
differences and distinctions. On the other end of the spectrum were tritheism as
well as some radically subordinationist views,
the latter of which emphasized the primacy of the Father of Creation to the
deity of Christ and Jesus's authority over the Holy Spirit. During the Council
of Nicea, the modalist bishops of Rome and Alexandria aligned politically with
Athanasius; whereas the bishops of Constantinople (Nicomedia), Antioch, and
Jerusalem sided with the subordinationists as middle ground between Arius and
Athanasius.

[edit]
Approaches to
Christology

Theologians like Jurgen Moltmann and
Walter Kasper have characterized Christologies as anthropological or
cosmological. These are also termed 'Christology from below' and 'Christology
from above' respectively. An anthropological Christology starts with the human
person of Jesus and works from his life and ministry toward what it means for
him to be divine; whereas, a cosmological Christology works in the opposite
direction. Starting from the eternal Logos, a cosmological Christology works
toward his humanity. Theologians typically begin on one side or the other and
their choice inevitably colors their resultant Christology. As a starting point
these options represent "diverse yet complementary" approaches; each poses its
own difficulties. Both Christologies 'from above' and 'from below' must come to
terms with the two natures of Christ: human and divine. Just as light can be
perceived as a wave or as a particle, so Jesus must be thought in terms of both
his divinity and humanity. You cannot talk about “either or” but must talk about
"both and".[56]

Cosmological approaches

Christologies from above start with the Logos, the second Person of the
Trinity, establish his eternality, his agency in creation, and his economic
Sonship. Jesus' unity with God is established by the Incarnation as the divine
Logos assumes a human nature. This approach was common in the early church -
e.g., St. Paul and St. John in the Gospels. The attribution of full humanity to
Jesus is resolved by stating that the two natures mutually share their
properties (a concept termed communicatio
idiomatum).[57]

Anthropological approaches

Christologies from below start with the human being Jesus as the
representative of the new humanity, not with the pre-existent Logos. Jesus lives
an exemplary life, one to which we aspire in religious experience. This form of
Christology lends itself to mysticism, and some of its roots go back to
emergence of Christ mysticism in the 6th century East, but in the West it
flourished between the 11th and 14th centuries. A recent theologian Wolfhart
Pannenberg contends that the resurrected Jesus is the “eschatological
fulfillment of human destiny to live in nearness to God.”[58]

Political approaches

The Christian faith is inherently political because allegiance to Jesus as
risen Lord relativises all earthly rule and authority. Jesus is called "Lord"
over 230 times in Paul’s epistles alone, and is thus the principal confession of
faith in the Pauline epistles. Further, N.T. Wright argues that this Pauline
confession is the core of the gospel of salvation. The Achilles' heel of this
approach is the loss of eschatological tension between this present age and the
future divine rule that is yet to come. This can happen when the state co-opts
Christ’s authority as was often the case in imperial Christology. Modern
political Christologies seek to overcome imperialist ideologies.[59]

[edit]
Works of Christ

Resurrection of Jesus

Main articles: Crucifixion of
Jesus and Resurrection of
Jesus

The Resurrection of Christ by Carl Heinrich Bloch,
1875.

The resurrection is perhaps the most controversial aspect of the life of
Jesus Christ. Christianity hinges on this point of Christology, both as a
response to a particular history and as a confessional response.[60]
Some Christians claim that because he was resurrected, that the future of the
world was forever altered. Most Christians believe that Jesus’ resurrection
brings reconciliation with God (II Corinthians 5:18), the destruction of death
(I Corinthians 15:26), and forgiveness of sins for followers of Jesus
Christ.

After Jesus had died, and was buried, the New Testament states that
he appeared to others in bodily form. Some skeptics say his appearances were
only perceived by his followers in mind or spirit. The gospels state that the
disciples believed they witnessed Jesus’ resurrected body and that led to the
beginning of the faith. They had previously hid in fear of persecution after
Jesus’ death. After seeing Jesus they boldly proclaimed the message of Jesus
Christ despite tremendous risk. They obeyed Jesus’ mandate to be reconciled to
God through repentance (Luke 24:47), baptism, and obedience (Matthew
28:19-20).

Offices as Prophet, Priest, and King

Jesus Christ, the Mediator of humankind, fulfills the three offices of Prophet,
Priest, and King. Eusebius of the early church
worked out this threefold classification, which during the Reformation played a
substantial role in scholastic
Lutheran Christology and in John Calvin's[61]
and John
Wesley's Christology.[62]

[edit]
Pneumatology: Holy
Spirit

Main articles: Pneumatology and Holy
Spirit

See also: Paraclete

Paloma

Pneumatology is the study
of the Holy Spirit. Pneuma
(πνεῦμα)
is Greek for "breath", which metaphorically
describes a non-material being or influence.

In Christian theology pneumatology refers to the study of the Holy
Spirit. In Christianity, the Holy
Spirit (or Holy Ghost) is the Spirit of God. Within
mainstream (Trinitarian) Christian beliefs he is the third person of the Trinity. As part
of the Godhead, the Holy
Spirit is equal with God the Father and with
God the
Son. The Christian theology of the Holy Spirit was the last piece of
Trinitarian theology to be fully developed.

Within mainstream (Trinitarian) Christianity the Holy Spirit is one of the
three persons of the Trinity who make up the single
substance of God.
As such the Holy Spirit it is personal, and as part of the Godhead, he is
fully God, co-equal and co-eternal with God the Father and Son of
God.[63][64][65]
He is different from the Father and the Son in that he proceeds from the
Father (or from
the Father and the Son) as described in the Nicene Creed.[64]
His sacredness is
reflected in the New Testament
gospels[66][67][68]
which proclaim blasphemy against the Holy
Spirit as unforgivable.

The English word comes from two Greek words: πνευμα (pneuma, spirit)
and λογος (logos, teaching about). Pneumatology would normally include
study of the person of the Holy Spirit, and the works of the Holy Spirit. This
latter category would normally include Christian teachings on new birth, spiritual gifts
(charismata), Spirit-baptism,
sanctification, the inspiration of prophets, and the
indwelling of the Holy Trinity (which in itself covers many different aspects).
Different Christian
denominations have different theological approaches.

Christians believe that the Holy Spirit leads people to faith in Jesus and
gives them the ability to live a Christian
lifestyle. The Holy Spirit dwells inside every Christian, each one's body
being his temple.[1 Cor 3:16] Jesus described the Holy Spirit[Jn 14:26] as paracletus in Latin, derived from Greek. The word is
variously translated as Comforter, Counselor, Teacher, Advocate,[69]
guiding people in the way of the truth. The Holy Spirit's action in one's life
is believed to produce positive results, known as the Fruit of the Holy
Spirit. The Holy Spirit enables Christians, who still experience the effects
of sin, to do things they never could do on their own. These spiritual gifts are
not innate abilities "unlocked" by the Holy Spirit, but entirely new abilities,
such as the ability to cast out demons or simply bold speech.
Through the influence of the Holy Spirit a person sees more clearly the world
around him or her and can use his or her mind and body in ways that exceed his
or her previous capacity. A list of gifts that may be bestowed include the charismatic gifts
of prophecy,
tongues, healing, and
knowledge. Christians holding a view known as cessationism believe these
gifts were given only in New Testament times. Christians almost universally
agree that certain "spiritual gifts" are
still in effect today, including the gifts of ministry, teaching, giving,
leadership, and mercy.[Rom 12:6-8] The experience of the Holy Spirit
is sometimes referred to as being anointed.

After his resurrection,
Christ told his disciples that they would be "baptized with the Holy Spirit"
and would receive power from this event,[Ac 1:4-8] a promise that was fulfilled in the
events recounted in the second chapter of Acts. On the first Pentecost, Jesus' disciples
were gathered in Jerusalem when
a mighty wind was heard and tongues of fire appeared over their heads. A
multilingual crowd heard the disciples speaking, and each of them heard them
speaking in his or her native language.

The Holy Spirit is believed to perform specific divine functions in the life
of the Christian or the church. These include:

Conviction of sin. The Holy Spirit acts to
convince the unredeemed person both of the sinfulness of their actions, and of
their moral standing as sinners before God.[70]

Bringing to conversion. The action of the Holy Spirit is seen as an
essential part of the bringing of the person to the Christian faith.[71]
The new believer is "born again of the Spirit".[72]

Enabling the Christian life. The Holy Spirit is believed to dwell
in the individual believers and enable them to live a righteous and faithful
life.[71]

As a comforter or Paraclete, one who
intercedes, or supports or acts as an advocate, particularly in times of
trial.

Inspiration and interpretation of scripture. The Holy Spirit both
inspires the writing of the scriptures and interprets them to
the Christian and/or church.[73]

The Holy Spirit is also believed to be active especially in the life of Jesus Christ, enabling him
to fulfil his work on earth. Particular actions of the Holy Spirit include:

Cause of his birth. According to the gospel accounts of the birth
of Jesus, the "beginning of His incarnate existence", was due to the Holy
Spirit.[74][75]

Anointing him at his baptism.[71]

Empowerment of his ministry. The ministry of Jesus following his
baptism (in which the Holy Spirit is described in the gospels as "descending
on Him like a dove") is conducted in the power and at the direction of the
Holy Spirit.[71]

Fruit of the Spirit

Main article: Fruit of the Holy
Spirit

Christians believe the "Fruit of the
Spirit" consists of virtuous characteristics engendered in the Christian by
the action of the Holy Spirit. They are those listed in Galatians 5:22-23: "But the fruit of the Spirit is love, joy, peace, patience, kindness, goodness, faithfulness, gentleness,
and self-control."[76]
The Roman Catholic
Church adds to this list generosity, modesty, and chastity.[77]

Gifts of the Spirit

Main article: Spiritual gift

Christians believe that the Holy Spirit gives 'gifts' to Christians. These
gifts consist of specific abilities granted to the individual Christian.[71]
They are frequently known by the Greek word for gift, Charisma, from
which the term charismatic derives. The New
Testament provides three different lists of such gifts which range from the
supernatural (healing, prophecy, tongues) through those
associated with specific callings (teaching) to those expected of all Christians
in some degree (faith). Most consider these lists not to be exhaustive, and
other have compiled their own lists. Saint Ambrose wrote of the Seven Gifts
of the Holy Spirit poured out on a believer at baptism: 1. Spirit of Wisdom; 2.
Spirit of Understanding; 3. Spirit of Counsel; 4. Spirit of Strength; 5. Spirit
of Knowledge; 6. Spirit of Godliness; 7. Spirit of Holy Fear.[78]

It is over the nature and occurrence of these gifts, particularly the
supernatural gifts (sometimes called charismatic gifts), that the greatest
disagreement between Christians with regard to the Holy Spirit exists.

One view is that the supernatural gifts were a special dispensation for the
apostolic ages, bestowed because of the unique conditions of the church at that
time, and are extremely rarely bestowed in the present time.[79]
This is the view of the Catholic Church[65]
and many other mainstream Christian groups. The alternate view, espoused mainly
by Pentecostal denominations and the charismatic movement, is that the absence
of the supernatural gifts was due to the neglect of the Holy Spirit and his work
by the church. Although some small groups, such as the Montanists, practiced the
supernatural gifts they were rare until the growth of the Pentecostal movement in
the late 19th century.[79]

Believers in the relevance of the supernatural gifts sometimes speak of a
Baptism of the Holy Spirit or Filling of the Holy Spirit which the
Christian needs to experience in order to receive those gifts. Many churches
hold that the Baptism of the Holy Spirit is identical with conversion,
and that all Christians are by definition baptized in the Holy Spirit.[79]

[edit]
Cosmology: Things
created

Main article: Christian
cosmology

“

And
God said, Let there be light: and there was light.And God saw the light,
that it was good: and God divided the light from the darkness.And God
called the light Day, and the darkness he called Night. And the evening
and the morning were the first day.

Genesis 1:
3-5

”

The various authors of the Old)
and New Testament provide
glimpses of their insight regarding cosmology. The cosmos was created
by God by divine command, in the best-known and most complete account in the
Bible, that of Genesis 1.

[edit]
World

See also: Creator deity and Creationism

Within this broad understanding, however, there are a number of views
regarding exactly how this doctrine ought to be interpreted.

Some Christians, particularly Young and Old Earth
creationists, interpret Genesis as a accurate and literal account of
creation.

Others, may understand these to be, instead, spiritual insights more
vaguely defined.

It is a tenet of Christian faith (Roman Catholic, Orthodox and Protestant)
that God is the creator of all things from nothing, and has made
human beings in the Image of God, who by direct
inference is also the source of the human soul. In Chalcedonian Christology, Jesus is the Word of
God, which was in the beginning and, thus, is uncreated, and hence is God,
and consequently identical with the Creator of the world ex nihilo.

Roman Catholicism uses
the phrase special creation to refer to the doctrine of immediate or special
creation of each human soul. In 2004, the International Theological Commission,
then under the presidency of Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger,
published a paper in which it accepts the current scientific accounts of the
history of the universe commencing in the Big Bang about 15 billion years ago
and of the evolution of all life on earth including humans from the micro
organisms commencing about 4 billion years ago.[80]
The Roman Catholic
Church allows for both a literal and allegorical
interpretation of Genesis, so as to allow
for the possibility of Creation by means of an evolutionary process over
great spans of time, otherwise known as theistic
evolution.[dubious
– discuss]
It believes that the creation of the world is a work of God through the Logos, the Word
(idea, intelligence, reason and logic):

"In the beginning was the Word...and the Word was God...all things were
made through him, and without him was not anything made that was made."

The New Testament claims that God created everything by the eternal Word,
Jesus Christ his beloved Son. In him

"all things were created, in heaven and on earth.. . all things were
created through him and for him. He is before all things, and in him all
things hold together.[81]

[edit]
Anthropology:
Humanity

Main article: Christian
anthropology

Christian
anthropology is the study of humanity, especially as it
relates to the divine. This theological
anthropology refers to the study of the human ("anthropology") as it relates
to God. It differs from
the social science of anthropology, which
primarily deals with the comparative study of the physical and social
characteristics of humanity across times and places.

One aspect studies the innate nature or constitution of the human, known as
the nature of mankind. It is concerned with the relationship between
notions such as body,
soul and spirit which
together form a person, based on their descriptions in the Bible. There are three traditional
views of the human constitution – trichotomism, dichotomism and monism (in the sense
of anthropology).[82]

[edit]
Components

Soul

See also: soul, nephesh, and psyche
(psychology)

The semantic domain of Biblical soul is based on the Hebrew word nepes, which presumably
means “breath” or “breathing being”.[83]
This word never means an immortal soul[84]
or an incorporeal part of the human being[85]
that can survive death of the body as the spirit of dead.[86]
This word usually designates the person as a whole[87]
or its physical life. In the Septuagint nepes is
mostly translated as psyche (ψυχή)
and, exceptionally, in the Book of Joshua as
empneon (ἔνμπεον), that is "breathing being".[88]

The New Testament follows the
terminology of the Septuagint, and thus uses the
word psyche with the Hebrew semantic domain and not the Greek,[89]
that is an invisible power (or ever more, for Platonists, immortal and
immaterial) that gives life and motion to the body and is responsible for its
attributes.

In Patristic thought, towards the
end of the 2nd century psyche was understood in more a Greek than a
Hebrew way, and it was contrasted with the body. In the 3rd century, with the
influence of Origen, there was the
establishing of the doctrine of the inherent immortality of the soul and its
divine nature.[90]
Origen also taught the transmigration of the
souls and their preexistence, but these views were officially rejected in 553 in
the Fifth Ecumenical
Council. Inherent immortality of the soul was accepted among western and
eastern theologians throughout the middle ages, and after the
Reformation, as evidenced by the Westminster
Confession.

Spirit

See also: Spirit

The spirit (Hebrew ruach, Greek πνεῦμα,
pneuma, which can also mean "breath") is likewise an immaterial
component. It is often used interchangeably with "soul", psyche, although
trichotomists believe that the spirit is distinct from the soul.

"When Paul speaks of the pneuma of man he does not mean some higher
principle within him or some special intellectual or spiritual faculty of his,
but simply his self, and the only questions is whether the self is regarded in
some particular aspect when it is called pneuma. In the first place, it
apparently is regarded in the same way as when it is called psyche –
viz. as the self that lives in man's attitude, in the orientation of his
will."[91]

Body, Flesh

See also: Body and Flesh

The body (Greek σῶμα
soma) is the corporeal or physical aspect of a human being. Christians
have traditionally believed that the body will be resurrected at
the end of the age.

Flesh (Greek σάρξ,
sarx) is usually considered synonymous with "body", referring to the
corporeal aspect of a human being. The apostle Paul contrasts
flesh and spirit in Romans 7-8.

[edit]
Origin of humanity

See also: Creationism, Theistic
evolution, and Image of God

The Bible
teaches in the book of Genesis the humans were
created by God. Some Christians believe that this must have involved a
miraculous creative act, while others are comfortable with the idea that God
worked through the evolutionary process.

The book of Genesis also teaches
that human beings, male and female, were created in the image of God. The exact
meaning of this has been debated throughout church history.

[edit]
Death and afterlife

See also: Afterlife

Christian anthropology has implications for beliefs about death and the afterlife. The Christian
church has traditionally taught that the soul of each individual separates from
the body at death, to be reunited at the resurrection.
This is closely related to the doctrine of the immortality of the soul. For
example, the Westminster
Confession (chapter XXXII) states:

"The bodies of men, after death, return to dust, and see corruption: but
their souls, which neither die nor sleep, having an immortal subsistence,
immediately return to God who gave them"

Intermediate state

Main article: Intermediate
state

The question then arises: where exactly does the disembodied soul "go" at
death? Theologians refer to this subject as the intermediate state.
The Old Testament speaks of a
place called sheol where the spirits of the
dead reside. In the New Testament, hades, the
classical Greek realm of the dead, takes the place of sheol. In
particular, Jesus teaches in Luke 16:19-31 (Lazarus and Dives)
that hades consists of two separate "sections", one for the righteous and
one for the unrighteous. His teaching is consistent with intertestamental
Jewish thought on the subject.[92]

Fully developed Christian theology goes a step further; on the basis of such
texts as Luke 23:43 and Philippians 1:23, it has traditionally been taught that
the souls of the dead are received immediately either into heaven or hell, where
they will experience a foretaste of their eternal destiny prior to the
resurrection. (Roman Catholicism
teaches a third possible location, Purgatory, though this is
denied by Protestants and Eastern Orthodox.)

"the souls of the righteous, being then made perfect in holiness, are
received into the highest heavens, where they behold the face of God, in light
and glory, waiting for the full redemption of their bodies. And the souls of
the wicked are cast into hell, where they remain in torments and utter
darkness, reserved to the judgment of the great day." (Westminster
Confession)

Some Christian groups which stress a monistic anthropology deny that the soul
can exist consciously apart from the body. For example, the Seventh-day
Adventist Church teaches that the intermediate state is an unconscious sleep; this
teaching is informally known as "soul sleep".

Final state

In Christian belief, both the righteous and the unrighteous will be
resurrected at the last judgment. The
righteous will receive incorruptible, immortal bodies (1 Corinthians 15), while
the unrighteous will be sent to hell. Traditionally, Christians
have believed that hell will be a place of eternal physical and psychological
punishment. In the last 2 centuries, annihilationism has
become more popular.

[edit]
Angelology: Angels

Main articles: Heavenly
host and Christian
angelic hierarchy

Most descriptions of angels in the Bible describe them in military terms. For
example in terms such as encampment (Gen.32:1-2),
command structure (Ps.91:11-12; Matt.13:41; Rev.7:2),
and combat (Jdg.5:20;
Job 19:12; Rev.12:7).

Its specific hierarchy differs slightly from the Hierarchy of
Angels as it surrounds more military services, whereas the Hierarchy of
angels is a division of angels into non-military services to God.

[edit]
Members of the heavenly
host

Main article: Cherub

Cherubim are depicted as accompanying God's chariot-throne (Ps.80:1). Exodus 25:18-22 refers to two Cherub statues placed on top of
the Ark of the Covenant, the two cherubim are usually interpreted as guarding
the throne of God. Other guard-like duties include being posted in locations
such as the gates of Eden (Gen.3:24). Cherubim
were mythological winged bulls or other beasts that were part of ancient Near
Eastern traditions.[93]

Main article: Archangel

This angelic designation might be given to angels of various ranks. An
example would be Raphael who is
ranked variously as a Seraph, Cherub, and Archangel .[94]
This is usually a result of conflicting schemes of hierarchies of angels.

Main article: Angel

It is not known how many angels there are but one figure given in Revelation 5:11 for the number of "many angels in a circle
around the throne, as well as the living creatures and the elders" was "ten
thousand times ten thousand", which would be 100 million.

[edit]
Demonology: Fallen
angels

Statue of the Fallen Angel, Retiro
Park (Madrid, Spain).

Main articles: Christian
demonology, Demon, and Fallen angel

In most of Christianity, a fallen
angel is an angel who has been exiled or banished from Heaven. Often such
banishment is a punishment for disobeying or rebelling against God (see War in Heaven). The
best-known fallen angel is Lucifer. Lucifer is a name
frequently given to Satan in Christian belief. This usage
stems from a particular interpretation, as a reference to a fallen angel, of a
passage in the Bible (Isaiah 14:3-20) that speaks of someone who is given the name of
"Day Star" or "Morning Star" (in Latin, Lucifer) as fallen
from heaven. The Greek etymological synonym of
Lucifer, Eωσφόρος (Eosphoros, "light-bearer").[95][96]
is used of the morning star in 2 Peter 1:19 and elsewhere with no reference to Satan. But
Satan is called Lucifer in many writings later than the Bible, notably in
Milton's Paradise Lost
(7.131-134, among others), because, according to Milton, Satan was "brighter
once amidst the host of Angels, than that star the stars among."

Allegedly, fallen angels are those which have committed one of the seven
deadly sins. Therefore are banished from heaven and suffer in hell for all
eternity. Demons from hell would punish the fallen angel by ripping out their
wings as a sign of insignificance and low rank. [97]

[edit]
Heaven

Dante and Beatrice gaze upon
the highest heavens; from Gustave Doré's
illustrations to the Divine
Comedy.

Christianity has taught
Heaven as a place of eternal life, in that it is
a shared plane to be attained by all the elect (rather than an abstract
experience related to individual concepts of the ideal). The Christian Church
has been divided over how people gain this eternal life. From the 16th to the
late 19th century, Christendom was divided
between the Roman Catholic
view, the Orthodox view,
the Coptic
view, the Jacobite view,
the Abyssinian
view and Protestant views. See also
Christian
denominations.

Heaven is the English name for a transcendental
realm wherein human beings who have transcended human living live in an afterlife. in
the Bible and in English, the term "heaven" may refer to the physical heavens,
the sky
or the seemingly endless expanse of the universe beyond, the
traditional literal meaning of the term in English.

Christianity maintains that entry into Heaven awaits such time as, "When the
form of this world has passed away." (*JPII) One view expressed in the Bible is that on the day Christ
returns the righteous dead are resurrected first, and then those who are alive
and judged righteous will be brought up to join them, to be taken to heaven. (I
Thess 4:13-18)

Two related and often confused concepts of heaven in Christianity are better
described as the "resurrection of the body", which is exclusively of Biblical
origin, as contrasted with "the immortality of the soul", which is also evident
in the Greek tradition. In the first concept, the soul does not enter heaven
until the last judgement or the "end of time" when it (along with the body) is
resurrected and judged. In the second concept, the soul goes to a heaven on
another plane immediately after death. These two concepts are generally combined
in the doctrine of the double judgement where the soul is judged once at death
and goes to a temporary heaven, while awaiting a second and final physical
judgement at the end of the world.(*" JPII, also see eschatology, afterlife)

One popular medieval view of Heaven was that it existed as a physical place
above the clouds and that God and the Angels were physically above, watching
over man. Heaven as a physical place survived in the concept that it was located
far out into space, and that the stars were "lights shining through from
heaven".

Many of today's Biblical scholars, such as N. T. Wright, in tracing
the concept of Heaven back to its Jewish roots, see Earth and Heaven as
overlapping or interlocking. Heaven is known as God's space, his dimension, and
is not a place that can be reached by human technology. This belief states that
Heaven is where God lives and reigns whilst being active and working alongside
people on Earth. One day when God restores all things, Heaven and Earth will be
forever combined into the 'New Heavens' and 'New Earth'.

See also: Salvation and Soteriology

Religions that teach about heaven differ on how (and if) one gets into it,
typically in the afterlife. In most, entrance to Heaven is conditional on having
lived a "good life" (within the terms of the spiritual system). A notable
exception to this is the 'sola fide' belief of many
mainstream Protestants, which teaches that one does not have to live a perfectly
"good life," but that one must accept Jesus Christ as one's
saviour, and then Jesus Christ will assume the guilt of one's sins; believers are believed to be
forgiven regardless of any good or bad "works" one has participated in.[98]

Many religions state that those who do not go to heaven will go to a place
"without the presence of God", Hell, which is eternal (see annihilationism). Some
religions believe that other afterlives exist in addition to Heaven and Hell,
such as Purgatory. One belief, universalism, believes that
everyone will go to Heaven eventually, no matter what they have done or believed
on earth. Some forms of Christianity believe Hell to be the termination of the
soul.

Christianity has taught
"Heaven" as a place of eternal life, in that it is
a shared plane to be attained by all the elect (rather than an abstract
experience related to individual concepts of the ideal). The Christian Church
has been divided over how people gain this eternal life. From the 16th to the
late 19th century, Christendom was divided
between the Roman Catholic
view, the Orthodox view,
the Coptic
view, the Jacobite view,
the Abyssinian
view and Protestant views. See also
Christian
denominations.

Various saints
have had visions of heaven
(2 Corinthians 12:2-4). The Orthodox concept of life in
heaven is described in one of the prayers for the
dead: "…a place of light, a place of green pasture, a place of repose,
whence all sickness, sorrow and sighing are fled away."[99]

The Church bases its belief in Heaven on some main biblical passages in the
Hebrew and Christian Scriptures (Old and New Testaments) and collected church
wisdom. Heaven is the Realm of the Blessed Trinity, the angels[100]
and the saints.[101]

The essential joy of heaven is called the beatific vision, which
is derived from the vision of God's essence. The soul rests perfectly in God,
and does not, or cannot desire anything else than God. After the Last
Judgment, when the soul is reunited with its body, the body participates in
the happiness of the soul. It becomes incorruptible, glorious and perfect. Any
physical defects the body may have laboured under are erased. Heaven is also
known as paradise in some cases. The
Great Gulf separates heaven from hell.

Upon dying, each soul goes to what is called "the particular judgement" where
its own afterlife is decided (i.e. Heaven after Purgatory, straight to Heaven,
or Hell.) This is
different from "the general judgement" also known as "the Last
judgement" which will occur when Christ returns to judge
all the living and the dead.

The term Heaven (which differs from "The Kingdom of Heaven" see note below)
is applied by the Biblical authors to the realm in which God currently resides.
Eternal life, by contrast, occurs in a renewed, unspoilt and perfect creation,
which can be termed Heaven since God will choose to dwell there permanently with
his people, as seen in Revelation 21:3. There will no longer be any separation between
God and man. The believers themselves will exist in incorruptible, resurrected
and new bodies; there will be no sickness, no death and no tears. Some teach
that death itself is not a natural part of life, but was allowed to happen after
Adam
and Eve disobeyed God (see original sin) so that
mankind would not live forever in a state of sin and thus a state of separation
from God.

Many evangelicals understand this future life to be divided into two distinct
periods: first, the Millennial Reign of Christ (the one thousand years) on this
earth, referred to in Revelation 20:1-10; secondly, the New Heavens and New Earth,
referred to in Revelation 21 and 22. This millennialism (or chiliasm) is a
revival of a strong tradition in the Early Church that was dismissed by
Augustine of Hippo and the Roman Catholic Church after him.

Not only will the believers spend eternity with God, they will also spend it
with each other. John's vision recorded in Revelation describes a New
Jerusalem which comes from Heaven to the New Earth, which is a seen to be a
symbolic reference to the people of God living in community with one another.
'Heaven' will be the place where life will be lived to the full, in the way that
the designer planned, each believer 'loving the Lord their God with all their
heart and with all their soul and with all their mind' and 'loving their
neighbour as themselves' (adapted from Matthew 22:37-38) —a place of great joy,
without the negative aspects of earthly life.

Purgatory

Most people who would enter Heaven do so through Purgatory (or "process of
purification"). In Purgatory, a soul pays off all temporal punishment one
deserved for the sins he committed in life. This does not always happen though.
If one receives the Sacrament of Penance validly, as well as
gains a plenary indulgence, and dies, one would directly go to heaven. There are
many ways to get an indulgence, in various Papal decrees or publications.[102]
To receive a plenary indulgence, one must receive the sacrament of Confession
validly, do one's penance, validly receive Communion, say some specified number
of Lord's Prayers, Angelic Salutations
and Minor Doxologies for the
intentions of the Pope, and then perform some act of gaining the indulgence. Of
course, one must remain free from all sin, mortal and venial, while doing all
these things.

[edit]
Hell

Hell as depicted in Hieronymus Bosch's triptych The Garden of
Earthly Delights (cca 1504).

Main article: Hell in Christian
beliefs

Hell in Christian beliefs, is a
place or a state in which the souls of the unsaved will suffer
the consequences of sin. The Christian doctrine of Hell
derives from the teaching of the New Testament, where Hell
is typically described using the Greek words Gehenna or Tartarus.
Unlike Hades, Sheol, or Purgatory it
is eternal, and those damned to Hell are without hope. In the New
Testament, it is described as the place or state of punishment after death or last judgment for those
who have rejected Jesus.[103]
In many classical and popular depictions it is also the abode of Satan and of Demons.[104]

Hell is generally defined as the eternal fate of unrepentant sinners after
this life.[105]
Hell's character is inferred from biblical teaching, which has often been
understood literally.[105]
Souls are said to pass into Hell by God's irrevocable judgment, either
immediately after death (particular judgment)
or in the general judgment.[105]
Modern theologians generally describe Hell as the logical consequence of the
soul using its free will to reject the will of God.[105]
It is considered compatible with God's justice and mercy because God will not
interfere with the soul's free choice.[105]

Only in the King James Version of the bible is the word "Hell" used to
translate certain words, such as sheol (Hebrew) and both hades and Gehenna(Greek). All other
translations reserve Hell only for use when Gehenna is mentioned. It is
generally agreed that both sheol and hades do not typically refer to
the place of eternal punishment, but to the underworld or temporary abode
of the dead.[106]

Traditionally, the majority of Protestants have held that Hell will be a
place of unending conscious torment, both physical and spiritual,[107]
although some recent writers (such as C. S. Lewis[108]
and J.P. Moreland [109])
have cast Hell in terms of "eternal separation" from God. Certain biblical texts
have led some theologians to the conclusion that punishment in Hell, though
eternal and irrevocable, will be proportional to the deeds of each soul (e.g. Matthew 10:15, Luke 12:46-48).[110]

Another area of debate is the fate of the unevangelized (i.e. those who have
never had an opportunity to hear the Christian gospel), those who die in
infancy, and the mentally disabled. Some Protestants agree with Augustine that people
in these categories will be damned to Hell for original sin, while others
believe that God will make an exception in these cases.[107]

A "significant minority" believe in the doctrine of conditional
immortality,[111]
which teaches that those sent to Hell will not experience eternal conscious
punishment, but instead will be extinguished or annihilated after a
period of "limited conscious punishment".[112]
Prominent evangelical theologians who have adopted conditionalist beliefs
include John Wenham, Edward Fudge,
Clark
Pinnock and John Stott (although the
latter has described himself as an "agnostic" on the issue of
annihilationism).[107]
Conditionalists typically reject the traditional concept of the immortality of
the soul.

Some Protestants (such as George MacDonald, Karl
Randall, Keith DeRose and Thomas
Talbott), also, however, in a minority, believe that after serving their
sentence in Gehenna, all souls are
reconciled to God and
admitted to heaven, or ways are found at the time of death of drawing all souls
to repentance so that no "hellish" suffering is experienced. This view is often
called Christian
universalism—its conservative branch is more specifically called 'Biblical
or Trinitarian
universalism'—and is not to be confused with Unitarian
Universalism. See universal
reconciliation, apocatastasis and the problem of
Hell.

[edit]
Theodicy: Allowance of
evil

Main article: Theodicy

Theodicy can be said to be defense of God's goodness and omnipotence in view
of the existence of evil"</ref> Specifically, Theodicy is a specific
branch of theology and philosophy
which attempts to reconcile belief in God with the perceived existence of
evil.[113]
As such, theodicy can be said to attempt to justify the behaviour of God (at least insofar as
God allows evil).|Concise Oxford English Dictionary

Responses to the problem of evil have sometimes been classified as
defenses or theodicies. However, authors disagree on the exact
definitions.[114][115][116]
Generally, a defense attempts to show that there is no logical
incompatibility between the existence of evil and the existence of God. A
defense need not argue that this is a probable or plausible explanation, only
that the defense is logically possible. A defense attempts to answer the
logical problem of evil.

A theodicy, on the other hand, is a more ambitious attempt to provide a
plausible justification for the existence of evil. A theodicy attempts to answer
the evidential problem of evil.[115]
Richard Swinburne
maintains that it does not make sense to assume there are greater goods, unless
we know what they are, i.e., we have a successful theodicy.[117]

As an example, some authors see arguments including demons or the fall of
man as not logically impossible but not very plausible considering our
knowledge about the world. Thus they are seen as defenses but not good
theodicies.[115]
C. S.
Lewis writes in his book The Problem of
Pain:

“

We can, perhaps, conceive of a world in which God corrected the
results of this abuse of free will by His creatures at every moment: so
that a wooden beam became soft as grass when it was used as a weapon, and
the air refused to obey me if I attempted to set up in it the sound waves
that carry lies or insults. But such a world would be one in which wrong
actions were impossible, and in which, therefore, freedom of the will
would be void; nay, if the principle were carried out to its logical
conclusion, evil thoughts would be impossible, for the cerebral matter
which we use in thinking would refuse its task when we attempted to frame
them.[118]

”

Another possible answer is that the world is corrupted due to the sin of
mankind. Some answer that because of sin, the world has fallen from the grace of
God, and is not perfect. Therefore, evils and imperfections persist because the
world is fallen.[119]
William A. Dembski
argues that the effects of Adam's sin recorded in the Book of Genesis were
'back-dated' by God, and hence applied to the earlier history of the
universe.[120]

Evil is sometimes seen as a test or trial for humans. Irenaeus of Lyons and more
recently John
Hick have argued that evil and suffering are necessary for spiritual growth.
This is often combined with the free will argument by arguing that such
spiritual growth requires free will decisions. A problem with this is that many
evils do not seem to cause any kind of spiritual growth, or even permit it, as
when a child is abused from birth and becomes, seemingly inevitably, a brutal
adult.

The problem of evil is often phrased in the form: Why do bad things happen
to good people?. Christianity teach that all
people are inherently sinful due to the fall of man and original
sin; for example, Calvinist theology follows a
doctrine called federal headship, which
argues that the first man, Adam, was the legal
representative of the entire human race. A counterargument to the basic version
of this principle is that an omniscient God would have predicted this, when he
created the world, and an omnipotent God could have prevented it.

“

Isaiah 45.7

”

The Book of Isaiah clearly
claims that God is the source of at least some natural disasters, but Isaiah
doesn't attempt to explain the motivation behind the creation of evil. In
contrast, the Book of Job is one of the
most widely known formulations of the problem of evil in Western thought. In it,
Satan challenges God regarding his servant Job, claiming that Job only serves
God for the blessings and protection that he receives from him. God allows Satan
to plague Job and his family in a number of ways, with the limitation that Satan
may not take Job's life (but his children are killed). Job discusses this with
three friends and questions God regarding his suffering which he finds to be
unjust. God responds in a speech and then more than restores Job's prior health,
wealth, and gives him new children.

Bart D. Ehrman argues
that different parts of the Bible give different answers. One example is evil as
punishment for sin or as a consequence of sin. Ehrman writes that this seems to
be based on some notion of free will although this argument is never explicitly
mentioned in the Bible. Another argument is that suffering ultimately achieves a
greater good, possibly for persons other than the sufferer, that would not have
been possible otherwise. The Book of Job offers two different answers: suffering
is a test, and you will be rewarded later for passing it; another that God in
his might chooses not to reveal his reasons. Ecclesiastes sees suffering
as beyond human abilities to comprehend. Apocalyptic parts, including
the New Testament, see
suffering as due to cosmic evil forces, that God for mysterious reasons has
given power over the world, but which will soon be defeated and things will be
set right.[121]

[edit]
Hamartiology: Sin

Main articles: Hamartiology, Christian views on
sin, and Christian
anthropology

The Greek word in the New Testament that is
translated in English as "sin" is hamartia, which literally means
missing the target. 1 John 3:4 states: "Everyone who
sins breaks the law; in fact, sin is lawlessness". Jesus clarified the law
by defining its foundation: "Jesus replied: 'Love the Lord your God with all
your heart and with all your soul and with all your mind.' This is the first and
greatest
commandment. And the second is like it: 'Love your neighbor as yourself.'
All the Law and the
Prophets hang on these two
commandments." (Matthew 22:36-40)

Hamartiology (Greek: ἁμαρτία, hamartia,
"missing the mark," "sin," + -λογια, -logia, "sayings" or
"discourse") is the branch of Christian theology, more specifically, systematic theology,
which is the study of sin with a view to articulating a
doctrine of it.

Substantial branches of hamartiological understanding subscribe to the
doctrine of original sin, which was
taught by the Apostle Paul in Romans 5:12-19 and popularized by Saint Augustine. He
taught that all the descendants of Adam and Eve are guilty of
Adam's sin without their own personal choice [122]

In contrast, Pelagius argued that humans
enter life as essentially tabulae rasae. The Fall that occurred
when Adam and Eve disobeyed God was held by his group to have
affected humankind only minimally. But few theologians continue to hold this
hamartiological viewpoint.

A third branch of thinking takes an intermediate position, arguing that after
the Fall of Adam and Eve, humans are born impacted by sin such that they have
very decided tendencies toward sinning (which by personal choice all accountable
humans but Jesus
soon choose to indulge).

The degree to which a Christian believes humanity is impacted by either a
literal or metaphorical "Fall" determines their understanding of related
theological concepts like salvation, justification,
and sanctification.

Christian views on sin are mostly understood as legal infraction or contract
violation, and so salvation tends to be viewed in legal terms, similar to Jewish
thinking.

[edit]
Sin

Main article: Sin

A Sistine Chapel fresco depicts the
expulsion of Adam and Eve from the
garden of Eden for their sin of eating from the fruit of the Tree of the
Knowledge of Good and Evil.

In religion, sin is the concept of
acts that violate a moral rule. The term sin may
also refer to the state of having committed
such a violation. Commonly, the moral code of conduct is
decreed by a divine entity, i.e. Divine law.

Sin is often used to mean an action that is prohibited or considered wrong;
in some religions (notably some sects of Christianity), sin can
refer not only to physical actions taken, but also to thoughts and internalized
motivations and feelings. Colloquially, any thought, word, or act considered
immoral, shameful,
harmful, or alienating might be termed "sinful".

An elementary concept of "sin" regards such acts and elements of Earthly
living that one cannot take with them into transcendental living. Food, for
example is not of transcendental living and therefore its excessive savoring is
considered a sin. A more developed concept of "sin" deals with a distinction
between sins of death (mortal sin) and the sins of
human living (venial sin). In that context,
mortal sins are said to have the dire consequence of mortal penalty, while
sins of living (food,
casual or informal sexuality, play, inebriation) may be regarded
as essential spice for transcendental living, even though these may be
destructive in the context of human living (obesity, infidelity).

Common ideas surrounding sin in various religions include:

Punishment for sins, from
other people, from God either in life or in afterlife,
or from the Universe in general.

The question of whether an act must be intentional to be sinful.

The idea that one's conscience should produce
guilt for a
conscious act of sin.

A scheme for determining the seriousness of the sin.

Repentance from (expressing
regret for and determining not to commit) sin, and atonement
(repayment) for past deeds.

The possibility of forgiveness of sins, often
through communication with a deity or intermediary; in Christianity often
referred to as salvation. Crime and justice are related secular
concepts.

In Western
Christianity, "sin is lawlessness" (1 John 3:4)
and so salvation tends to be understood in legal terms, similar to Jewish law.
Sin alienates the sinner from God. It has damaged, and completely severed, the
relationship of humanity to God. That relationship can only be restored through
acceptance of Jesus
Christ and his death on the cross as a sacrifice for mankind's sin (see Salvation and
Substitutionary
atonement).

In Eastern
Christianity, sin is viewed in terms of its effects on relationships, both
among people and between people and God. Sin is seen as the refusal to follow
God's plan, and the desire to be like God and thus in direct opposition to him
(see the account of Adam and Eve in the Book
of Genesis). To sin is to want control of one's destiny in opposition to the
will of God, to do some rigid beliefs.

In Russian variant of Eastern
Christianity, sin sometimes is regarded as any mistake made by people in
their life. From this point of view every person is sinful because every person
makes mistakes during his life. When person accuses others in sins he always
must remember that he is also sinner and so he must have mercy for others
remembering that God is also merciful to him and to all humanity.

[edit]
Fall of Man

Main article: Fall of Man

The Fall of Man or simply the Fall refers in Christian doctrine to the
transition of the first humans from a state of innocent obedience to God, to a state of guilty
disobedience to God. In the Book of Genesis chapter
2, Adam
and Eve live at first with God in a paradise, but are then deceived
or tempted by the serpent to eat fruit from the Tree of
Knowledge of Good and Evil, which had been forbidden them by God. After
doing so they become ashamed of their nakedness, and God consequently expelled
them from paradise. The Fall is not
mentioned by name in the Bible, but the story of
disobedience and expulsion is recounted in both Testaments in different ways.
The Fall can refer to the wider theological inferences for all humankind as a
consequence of Eve and Adam's original sin. Examples
include the teachings of Paul in Romans 5:12-19 and 1 Cor. 15:21-22.

Some Christian
denominations believe the Fall corrupted the entire natural world, including
human nature, causing people to be born into original sin, a state from
which they cannot attain eternal life without the gracious intervention of
God. Protestants hold that Jesus' death was a "ransom" by
which humanity was offered freedom from the sin acquired at the Fall. In other
religions, such as Judaism, Islam, and Gnosticism, the term "The
Fall" is not recognized and varying interpretations of the Eden narrative are
presented.

Christianity interprets the
fall in a number of ways. Traditional Christian theology accepts the teaching of
St Paul in his letter to
the Romans[123][non-primary
source needed]
"For all have sinned and fall short of the glory of God" and of St John's Gospel that "God so
loved the world that he sent his only son (Jesus Christ) that whoever believes
on him should not perish, but have everlasting life".[John 3:16][non-primary
source needed]

The doctrine of original sin, as
articulated by Augustine of Hippo's
interpretation of Paul of Tarsus, provides
that the fall caused a fundamental change in human nature, so that all
descendants of Adam are born in sin, and can only be redeemed by divine
grace. Sacrifice was the only means by which humanity could be redeemed
after the Fall. Jesus, who was without sin, died on the cross as the ultimate
redemption for the sin of humankind.

[edit]
Original sin

Main article: Original
sin

Thus, the moment Adam and Eve ate the fruit from the tree—which God had
commanded them not to do—sinful death was born; it was an act of
disobedience, thinking they could become like gods, that was the sin. Since
Adam was the head of the human race, he is held responsible for the evil that
took place, for which reason the Fall of man is referred to
as the "sin of Adam". This sin
caused Adam and his descendants to lose unrestricted access to God Himself. The
years of life were limited. "Wherefore, as by one man sin entered into the
world, and death by sin; and so death passed upon all men, for that all have
sinned" (Romans 5:12). In Christian theology, the death
of Jesus on the cross is the atonement to
the sin of Adam. "For as in Adam all die, even so in Christ shall all be made
alive." (1 Corinthians 15:22). As a result of that act of Christ,
all who put their trust in Christ alone now have
unrestricted access to God through prayer and in presence.

Original sin, sometimes called ancestral sin,[124]
is, according to a doctrine proposed in Christian theology, humanity's state of
sin resulting from the
Fall of
Man.[26]
This condition has been characterized in many ways, ranging from something as
insignificant as a slight deficiency, or a tendency toward sin yet without
collective guilt, referred to as a "sin nature," to something as drastic as total depravity or
automatic guilt by all humans through collective guilt.[125]

Those who uphold the doctrine look to the teaching of Paul the Apostle in Romans 5:12-21 and 1 Corinthians 15:22 for its scriptural base,[26]
and see it as perhaps implied in Old Testament passages such as Psalm 51:5 and Psalm 58:3.

Augustine of Hippo
wrote that original sin is transmitted by concupiscence and enfeebles freedom of
the will without destroying it.[26]

The Apostolic Fathers and
the Apologists mostly dealt with
topics other than original sin.[26]
The doctrine of original sin was first developed in 2nd-century Bishop of Lyon Irenaeus's struggle against Gnosticism.[26]
The Greek Fathers emphasized the cosmic dimension of the Fall, namely that since
Adam human beings are born into a fallen world, but held fast to belief that
man, though fallen, is free.[26]
It was in the West that precise definition of the doctrine arose.[26]
Augustine of Hippo
taught that original sin was both an act of foolishness (insipientia) and
of pride and disobedience to God of Adam and Eve. He thought it was a most
subtle job to discern what came first: self-centeredness or failure in seeing
truth.[126]
The sin would not have taken place, if satan hadn't sown into their senses
„the root of evil” (radix Mali).[127]
The sin of Adam and Eve wounded their nature, affecting human intelligence and
will, as well as affections and desires, including sexual desire. The
consequences of the fall were transmitted to their descendants in the form of
concupiscence, which is a metaphysical term, and not a
psychological one. Thomas
Aquinas explained Augustine's doctrine pointing out that the libido
(concupiscence), which makes the original sin pass from parents to
children, is not a libido actualis, i.e. sexual lust, but libido
habitualis, i.e. a wound of the whole of human nature.[128]
Augustine insisted that concupiscence was not a being but bad
quality, the privation of good or a wound.[129]
The bishop of Hippo admitted that sexual concupiscence (libido) might
have been present in the perfect human nature in the paradise, and that only
later it had become disobedient to human will as a result of the first couple's
disobedience to God's will in the original sin.[130]
The original sin have made humanity a massa damnata[26]
(mass of perdition, condemned crowd). In Augustine's view (termed "Realism"),
all of humanity was really present in Adam when he sinned, and therefore all
have sinned. Original sin, according to Augustine, consists of the guilt of Adam
which all humans inherit. As sinners, humans are utterly depraved in nature,
lack the freedom to do good, and cannot respond to the will of God without divine
grace. Grace is irresistible, results
in conversion, and leads to perseverance.[131]

Augustine's formulation of original sin was popular among Protestant
reformers, such as Martin Luther and John
Calvin, and also, within Roman Catholicism, in the Jansenist movement, but this
movement was declared heretical by the Roman Catholic Church.[132]
There are wide-ranging disagreements among Christian groups as to the exact
understanding of the doctrine about a state of sinfulness or absence of holiness
affecting all humans, even children, with some Christian groups denying it
altogether.

The notion of original sin as interpreted by Augustine of Hippo
was affirmed by the Protestant Reformer John
Calvin. Calvin believed that humans inherit Adamic guilt and are in a state
of sin from the moment of conception. This inherently sinful nature (the basis
for the Calvinistic doctrine of "total depravity")
results in a complete alienation from God and the total inability of humans to
achieve reconciliation with God based on their own abilities. Not only do
individuals inherit a sinful nature due to Adam's fall, but since he was the
federal head and representative of the human race, all whom he represented
inherit the guilt of his sin by imputation.

New Testament

The scriptural basis for the doctrine is found in two New Testament books by
Paul the Apostle, Romans 5:12-21 and 1 Corinthians 15:22, in which he identifies Adam as the one man
through whom death came into the world.[26]
[133]

[edit]
Total depravity

Main article: Total depravity

Total depravity (also called absolute inability and total corruption) is a theological doctrine that
derives from the Augustinian concept
of original sin. It is the
teaching that, as a consequence of the Fall of Man, every
person born into the world is enslaved to the service of sin and, apart from the efficacious or prevenient grace of
God, is utterly unable to choose to follow God or choose to accept salvation as
it is freely offered.

It is also advocated to various degrees by many Protestant confessions of
faith and catechisms, including those of Lutheranism,[134]
Arminianism,[135]
and Calvinism.[136]

Total depravity is the fallen state of man as a result of original sin. The
doctrine of total depravity asserts that people are by nature not inclined or
even able to love God wholly with heart, mind, and strength, but rather all are
inclined by nature to serve their own will and desires and to reject the rule of
God. Even religion and philanthropy are wicked to
God to the extent that these originate from a human imagination, passion, and
will and are not done to the glory of God. Therefore, in Reformed theology, if God is
to save anyone He must predestine,
call, elect individuals to salvation since fallen man does not want to, indeed
is incapable of choosing God.[137]

Total depravity does not mean, however, that people are as evil as possible.
Rather, it means that even the good which a person may intend is faulty in its
premise, false in its motive, and weak in its implementation; and there is no
mere refinement of natural capacities that can correct this condition. Thus,
even acts of generosity and altruism are in fact egoist acts in
disguise. All good, consequently, is derived from God alone, and in no way
through man.[138]

Comparison between Protestants

This table summarizes the classical views of three different Protestant
beliefs on total depravity.[139]

Topic

Lutheranism

Calvinism

Arminianism

Human will

Total
Depravity without free will

Total Depravity without free will

Depravity does not preclude free
will

v ·
d ·
eHamartiology

Adam · Evil · The
Fall · Original
sin · Christian
views on sin · Other views on
sin · Supralapsarianism
and infralapsarianism · Theodicy · Total
depravity

See
also Apologetics · Soteriology · Demonology

[edit]
Salvation

Part of
a
series on

Atonement
in
Christianity

Substitutionary
Ransom
Christus
Victor
Satisfaction
Moral
influence
Penal
substitution
Governmental
Limited
Unlimited

v · d · e

Main articles: Christian
soteriology and Atonement in
Christianity

Christian soteriology is the branch of
Christian theology that deals with one's salvation.[140]
It is derived from the Greek sōtērion
(salvation) (from sōtēr savior, preserver) + English -logy.[141]

Atonement is a doctrine that describes how human beings can be reconciled to
God. In Christian
theology the atonement refers to the forgiving or pardoning of one's sin through the death of
Jesus Christ by crucifixion, which made
possible the reconciliation between God and creation. Within Christianity there
are three main theories for how such atonement might work: the ransom theory,
the satisfaction
theory and the moral
influence theory. Christian soteriology is unlike and not to be confused
with collective
salvation.

[edit]
Traditional focus

Christian soteriology traditionally focuses on how God ends the separation
people have from him due to sin by reconciling them with
himself. (Rom. 5:10-11). Many Christians believe they receive the
forgiveness of sins (Acts 2:38), life (Rom. 8:11), and salvation (1 Thess. 5:9) bought by Jesus through his innocent
suffering, death, and resurrection from the dead three days later (Matt. 28).

Christ's death, resurrection, ascension, and sending of the Holy
Spirit, is called The Paschal Mystery. Christ's human birth is called
the Incarnation. Either or
both are considered in different versions of soteriology.

While not neglecting the Paschal Mystery, many Christians believe
salvation is brought through the Incarnation itself, in which God took on
human nature so that humans could partake in the divine nature (2 Peter 1.4). As
St. Athanasius put it,
God became human so that we might become divine (St. Athanasius, De inc. 54, 3:
PG 25, 192B.). This grace in Christ (1 Cor. 1:4) is received as a gift of God that cannot be merited
by works done prior to one's conversion to Christianity (Eph. 2:8-9), which is brought about by hearing God's Word (Rom. 10:17) and harkening to it. This involves accepting Jesus
Christ as the personal saviour and Lord over one's life.

[edit]
Distinct schools

Protestant teaching, originating with Martin Luther, teaches
that salvation is received by grace alone and that one's
sole necessary response to this grace is faith alone. Older Christian
teaching, as found in Catholic and Orthodox theology, is that salvation is
received by grace alone, but that one's
necessary response to this grace comprises both faith and works (James 2:24,26;
Rom 2:6-7; Gal 5:6).

[edit]
Catholic soteriology

Human beings exists because God wanted to share His life with them. In this
sense, every human being is God's child. In a fuller sense, to come to salvation
is to be reconciled to God through Christ and to be united with His divine
Essence via Theosis in the beatific vision of the
Godhead. The graces of Christ's passion, death, and resurrection are found in
the seven sacraments of
the Catholic Church.

[edit]
Comparison between
Protestants

This table summarizes the classical views of three different Protestant
beliefs about salvation.[139]

Topic

Lutheranism

Calvinism

Arminianism

Human will

Total
Depravity without free will

Total
Depravity without free will

Depravity does not preclude free
will

Election

Unconditional election
to salvation only

Unconditional
election to salvation and damnation

Conditional
election in view of foreseen faith or unbelief

Justification

Justification
of all people completed at Christ's death.

Justification
is limited to those elected to salvation, completed at Christ's
death.

Justification possible
for all, but only completed when one chooses
faith.

Conversion

Through the means of grace, resistible

Without means, irresistible

Involves free will and is resistible

Preservation and apostasy

Falling away is possible, but God gives assurance
of preservation.

Perseverance
of the saints, once saved, always saved

Preservation
upon the condition of persevering faith with the possibility of a
total and final apostasy.

v ·
d ·
eChristian
Soteriology

Absolution •
Adoption •
Assurance •
Atonement •
Baptism • Conversion •
Faith • Forgiveness •
Glorification •
Grace •
Imputation •
Justification •
Mortification •
Ordo
Salutis • Predestination •
Reconciliation •
Redemption •
Regeneration •
Repentance •
Resurrection •
Sanctification •
Theosis • Union with
Christ

Related Theology: Eschatology •
Christology •
The
Trinity • Hamartiology

[edit]
Ecclesiology: Church

Main article: Ecclesiology

Ecclesiology the study of
the Christian Church,
including the institutional structure, sacraments and
practices (especially the worship of God) thereof

Ecclesiology (from Greek ἐκκλησίᾱ, ekklēsiā, "congregation, church"; and
-λογία, -logia) is the study of the
theological understanding of the Christian church. Specific areas of concern
include the church's role in salvation, its origin, its
relationship to the historical Christ, its discipline, its destiny,
and its leadership. Ecclesiology is,
therefore, the study of the church as a thing in, and of, itself.

Different ecclesiologies give shape to very different institutions. Thus, in
addition to describing a broad discipline of theology, ecclesiology may be used
in the specific sense of a particular church or denomination’s character,
self-described or otherwise. This is the sense of the word in such phrases as
Roman Catholic ecclesiology, Lutheran ecclesiology, and
ecumenical ecclesiology.

Issues addressed by ecclesiology

Ecclesiology asks the questions:

Who is the Church? Is it a visible or earthly corporation or a unified,
visible society—a "church" in the sense of a specific denomination or
institution, for instance? Or is it the body of all believing Christians (see invisible church)
regardless of their denominational
differences and disunity? What is the relationship between living Christians
and departed
Christians (the "cloud of
witnesses") -- do they (those on Earth and those in Heaven) constitute
together the Church?

Must one join a church? That is, what is the role of corporate worship in the
spiritual lives of believers? Is it in fact necessary? Can salvation be found
outside of formal membership in a given faith community, and what constitutes
"membership?" (Baptism? Formal acceptance of
a creed? Regular
participation?)

What is the authority of the
Church? Who gets to interpret the doctrines of the Church? Is the
organizational structure itself, either in a single corporate body, or
generally within the range of formal church structures, an independent
vehicle of revelation or of God's grace? Or is the Church's
authority instead dependent on and derivative of a separate and prior
divine revelation external to the organization, with individual
institutions being "the Church" only to the extent that they teach this
message? For example, is the Bible a written part of a wider
revelation entrusted to the Church as faith community, and therefore to be
interpreted within that context? Or is the Bible the revelation itself, and
the Church is to be defined as a group of people who claim adherence to it?

What does the Church do? What are the sacraments, divine
ordinances, and liturgies, in the context of
the Church, and are they part of the Church's mission to preach the Gospel? What is
the comparative emphasis and relationship between worship service, spiritual
formation, and mission, and is
the Church's role to create disciples of
Christ or some
other function? Is the Eucharist the defining element of the rest of the
sacramental system and the Church itself, or is it secondary to the act of
preaching? Is the Church to be understood as the vehicle for salvation, or the
salvific presence in the world, or as a community of those already "saved?"

How should the Church be governed? What was the mission and
authority of the Apostles, and is this handed down through the sacraments
today? What are the proper methods of choosing clergy such as bishops and priests, and what is their role
within the context of the Church? Is an ordained clergy necessary?
* Who are the leaders of a church? Must there be a policy-making board of
"leaders" within a church and what are the qualifications for this position,
and by what process do these members become official, ordained
"leaders"? Must leaders and clergy be "ordained," and is this possible only by those who
have been ordained by others?

[edit]
Ecclesiastical
polity

v ·
d ·
eEcclesiastical
polity

Episcopal
polity · Presbyterian
polity · Congregationalist
polity · Connectionalism

Main article: Ecclesiastical
polity

Ecclesiastical polity is the operational and governance structure of a church or Christian
denomination. It also denotes the ministerial
structure of the church and the authority relationships between churches. Polity
is closely related to Ecclesiology, the study of
doctrine and theology relating to church organization.

Issues of church governance appear in the first chapters of the Acts of the
Apostles; the first act recorded after the ascension is
the election of Matthias to replace Judas
Iscariot. Over the years a system of episcopal polity developed.

During the Protestant
Reformation, arguments were made that the New Testament prescribed
structures quite different from that of the Roman Catholic
Church of the day, and different Protestant bodies used different types of
polity. It was during this period that Richard
Hooker wrote Of the
Laws of Ecclesiastical Polity to defend the polity of the Church of England
against the Puritans.

Episcopal polity is used in several closely related senses. Most commonly it
refers to the field of church governance in the abstract, but it also can refer
to the governance of a particular Christian body. In this sense it is used as a
term in civil law.
"Polity" is sometimes used as a shorthand for the church governance structure
itself.

Though each church or denomination has its own characteristic structure,
there are three general types of polity.

Episcopal Polity

Main article: Episcopal polity

Churches having episcopal polity are governed by bishops. The title bishop comes
from the Greek word episkopos, which literally translates into
overseer.[142]
In regard to Catholicism, bishops have
authority over the diocese, which is both
sacramental and political; as well as performing ordinations, confirmations, and consecrations, the bishop
supervises the clergy of the diocese and
represents the diocese both secularly and in the hierarchy of church
governance.

Bishops in this system may be subject to higher ranking bishops (variously
called archbishops, metropolitans,
and/or patriarchs, depending upon the
tradition; see also Bishop for further explanation of
the varieties of bishops.) They also meet in councils or synods. These synods, subject to
presidency by higher ranking bishops, may govern the dioceses which are
represented in the council, though the synod may also be purely
advisory.

Note that the presence of the office of "bishop" within a church is not proof
of episcopal polity. For example, in Mormonism, the "bishop"
occupies the office that in an Anglican church would be
occupied by a priest.

Also, episcopal polity is not usually a simple chain of command. Instead,
some authority may be held, not only by synods and colleges of bishops, but by
lay and clerical councils.
Further, patterns of authority are subject to a wide variety of historical
rights and honors which may cut across simple lines of authority.

Episcopal polity is the predominant pattern in Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox and
Anglican churches. It is also
common in Methodist and Lutheran churches. Among
churches with episcopal polity, different theories of autonomy are expressed. So
in Roman Catholicism the
church is viewed as a single polity headed by the pope, but in Eastern Orthodoxy the
various churches retain formal autonomy but are held to be
unified by shared doctrine and conciliarity-- that is, the
authority of councils, such as ecumenical councils,
Holy
Synods and the former standing council, the Endemusa
Synod.

Presbyterian Polity

Main article: Presbyterian
polity

Many Reformed churches, notably
those in the Presbyterian and
Continental Reformed traditions, are governed by a hierarchy of councils. The
lowest level council governs a single local church and is called the session or
consistory; its members are called elders. The minister of the
church (sometimes referred to as a teaching elder) is a member of and
presides over the session; lay representatives (ruling elders or,
informally, just elders) are elected by the congregation. The session sends
representatives to the next level higher council, called the presbytery
or classis. In some Presbyterian churches there are higher level councils
(synods and/or general
assemblies). Each council has authority over its constituents, and the
representatives at each level are expected to use their own judgment. Hence
higher level councils act as courts of appeal for church trials and disputes,
and it is not uncommon to see rulings and decisions overturned.

Presbyterian polity is, of course, the characteristic governance of Presbyterian churches, and
also of churches in the Continental Reformed tradition. Elements of
presbyterian polity are also found in other churches. For example, in the Episcopal
Church in the United States of America governance by bishops is paralleled
by a system of deputies, who are lay and clerical representatives elected by parishes and, at the
national level, by the dioceses. Legislation in the general
convention requires the separate consent of the bishops and of the
deputies.

Note that, in episcopal polity, a presbyter refers to a priest.

Congregational Polity

Main article: Congregational
polity

Congregationalist
polity dispenses with titled positions such as bishop as a requirement of church
structure. The local congregation rules itself, though local leaders and
councils may be appointed.

Members may be sent from the congregation to associations that are sometimes
identified with the church bodies formed by Lutherans, Presbyterians, Anglicans, and other
non-congregational Protestants. The similarity
is deceptive, however, because the congregationalist associations do not
exercise control over their members (other than ending their membership in the
association). Many congregationalist churches are completely independent in
principle. One major exception is Ordination, where even
congregationalist churches often invite members of the vicinage
or association to ordain their called pastor.

It is a principle of congregationalism that ministers do not govern
congregations by themselves. They may preside over the congregation, but it is
the congregation which exerts its authority in the end.

Congregational polity is sometimes called "Baptist polity", as it is the
characteristic polity of Baptist churches.

[edit]
Priesthood

Main article: Priesthood

Laity, Priesthood of
all believers

Clergy, Bishop, Priest, Pastor, Elder

[edit]
Church discipline

Main article: Church
discipline

[edit]
Missiology

Main article: Missiology

[edit]
Sacrament

Main article: Sacrament

A sacrament, as defined in Hexam's Concise Dictionary of Religion is
what Roman Catholics believe
to be "a rite in
which God is uniquely
active." Augustine of Hippo
defined a Christian sacrament as "a
visible sign of an invisible reality." The Anglican Book of Common
Prayer speaks of them as "an outward and visible sign of an inward and
invisible Grace." Examples of
sacraments would be Baptism and the Eucharist."[143]
Therefore a sacrament is a religious symbol or
often a rite which
conveys divine grace, blessing, or sanctity upon the believer who
participates in it, or a tangible symbol which represents an intangible reality.
As defined above, an example would be baptism in water, representing
(and conveying) the grace of the gift of the Holy
Spirit, the Forgiveness of Sins,
and membership into the Church. Anointing with
holy anointing oil is
another example which is often synonymous with receiving the Holy
Spirit and salvation. Another way of looking at Sacraments is that they are
an external and physical sign of the conferral of Sanctifying Grace.[144]

Throughout the Christian faith views concerning which rites are sacramental,
that is conferring sanctifying grace, and
what it means for an external act to be sacramental vary widely. Other religious
traditions also have what might be called "sacraments" in a sense, though not
necessarily according to the Christian meaning of the term.

General definitions and terms

The Church is the congregation of saints, in which
the Gospel is rightly taught and the Sacraments are rightly
administered. –Augsburg
Confession[145]

In the majority of Western Christianity, the generally accepted definition of
a sacrament is that it is an outward sign that conveys spiritual grace
through Christ. Christian churches, denominations,
and sects are divided
regarding the number and operation of the sacraments. Sacraments are generally
held to have been instituted by Jesus Christ, although in
some cases this point is debated. They are usually administered by the clergy to a
recipient or recipients, and are generally understood to involve visible and
invisible components. The invisible component (manifested inwardly) is
understood to be brought about by the action of the Holy Spirit, God's grace working in the
sacrament's participants, while the visible (or outward) component entails the
use of such things as water, oil, and bread and wine that is blessed or consecrated; the
laying-on-of-hands; or a particularly significant covenant that is marked by a
public benediction (such as with marriage or absolution of sin in the
reconciliation of a penitent).

As defined by the Roman Catholic
Church, recognised by the Eastern Orthodox
churches, Oriental Orthodox,
(though these two do not categorically define the number), and Independent
Catholic and Old Catholic
Church.

The Orthodox Churches (Eastern and Oriental) typically do not limit the
number of sacraments, viewing all encounters with reality in life as sacramental
in some sense, and their acknowledgement of the number of sacraments at seven as
an innovation of convenience not found in the Church Fathers. It came
into use, although infrequently, later on from later encounters with the West
and its Sacramental Theology.[146]
Other denominations and traditions, both in eastern and western Christianity may
affirm only Baptism and Eucharist as sacraments, these include many of the Protestant denominations and
some of the Old Believers in the
Orthodox communion, some of whom reject all sacraments except Baptism.

Since some post-Reformation denominations do not regard clergy as having a
classically sacerdotal or priestly
function, they avoid the term "sacrament," preferring the terms "sacerdotal
function," "ordinance," or "tradition." This belief invests the efficacy of the
ordinance in the obedience and participation of the believer and the
witness of the presiding minister and the congregation. This view stems from a
highly developed concept of the priesthood of
all believers. In this sense, the believer himself or herself performs the
sacerdotal role[citation
needed].

[edit]
Eucharist

Part of the series on
Communion

also known as
"The Eucharist",
"The Lord's
Supper"
"Divine Liturgy" or
"Sacrament"

Theology

Real Presence
Transubstantiation
Transignification
Sacramental
Union
Memorialism
Consubstantiation
Impanation
Consecration
Words of
Institution

Theologies
contrasted
Anglican
Eucharistic theology
Eucharist
(Catholic Church)
Eucharist
(Lutheran Church)
Divine Liturgy
(Orthodox Church)

Important theologians
Paul · Aquinas
Luther · Calvin
Chrysostom · Augustine
Zwingli · Basil of
Caesarea

Related Articles
Christianity
Sacramental
bread
Christianity
and alcohol
Catholic
Historic Roots
Closed and Open Table
Divine
Liturgy
Eucharistic
adoration
Eucharistic
discipline
First
Communion
Infant
Communion
Mass ·
Sacrament
Sanctification
This box: view · talk · edit

Main article: Eucharist

Transsubstantiation
(Roman Catholicism)

Anglican
Eucharistic theology

Sacramental Union
(Lutheran)

Eucharist, also called Communion, or the Lord's Supper, and other names, is a
Christian sacrament or
ordinance,
generally considered to be a re-enactment of the Last Supper, the final meal
that Jesus Christ shared with
his disciples before his arrest and eventual crucifixion. The
consecration of bread and a cup within the rite recalls the moment at the Last
Supper when Jesus gave his disciples bread, saying, "This is my body", and wine,
saying, "This is my blood".[21][147]

There are different interpretations of the significance of the Eucharist, but
"there is more of a consensus among Christians about the meaning of the
Eucharist than would appear from the confessional debates over the sacramental
presence, the effects of the Eucharist, and the proper auspices under which it
may be celebrated."[21]

The phrase "the Eucharist" may refer not only to the rite but also to the
consecrated bread
(leavened or unleavened) and wine (or, in some Protestant denominations,
unfermented grape juice) used in the rite,[148]
and, in this sense, communicants may speak of "receiving the Eucharist", as well
as "celebrating the Eucharist".

Eucharist from Greek εὐχαριστία
(eucharistia), meaning thanksgiving. The verb εὐχαριστῶ, the usual word
for "to thank" in the Septuagint and the New
Testament, is found in the major texts concerning the Lord's Supper,
including the earliest:

For I received from the Lord what I also delivered to you, that the Lord
Jesus on the night when he was betrayed took bread, and when he had given
thanks, he broke it, and said, "This is my body which is for you. Do this
in remembrance of me." (1 Corinthians 11:23-24)

The Lord's Supper (Κυριακὸν δεῖπνον) derives from 1 Corinthians
11:20-21.

When you come together, it is not the Lord's Supper you eat, for as you
eat, each of you goes ahead without waiting for anybody else. One remains
hungry, another gets drunk.

Communion is a translation; other translations are "participation",
"sharing", "fellowship"[149]
of the Greek κοινωνία (koinōnía) in 1 Corinthians 10:16. The King James Version
has

The cup of blessing which we bless, is it not the communion of the
blood of Christ? The bread which we break, is it not the communion of
the body of Christ?[150]

Further information: Origin of the
Eucharist

Christ with the Eucharist by Vicente Juan Masip,
16th century.

The Last Supper appears in all
three Synoptic Gospels: Matthew, Mark, and Luke; and in
the First
Epistle to the Corinthians,[21][151][152]
while the last-named of these also indicates something of how early Christians
celebrated what Paul the Apostle called
the Lord's Supper. As well as the Eucharistic dialogue in John chapter
6.

In his First
Epistle to the Corinthians (c 54-55), Paul the Apostle gives
the earliest recorded description of Jesus' Last Supper: "The Lord Jesus
on the night when he was betrayed took bread, and when he had given thanks, he
broke it, and said, 'This is my body which is for you. Do this in remembrance of
me.' In the same way also the cup, after supper, saying, 'This cup is the new
covenant in my blood. Do this, as often as you drink it, in remembrance of
me'." [153]

The synoptic gospels, first Mark,[154]
and then Matthew[155]
and Luke,[156]
depict Jesus as presiding over the Last Supper. References to Jesus' body and
blood foreshadow his crucifixion, and he identifies them as a new covenant.[157]
In the gospel of John, the account of the Last Supper has no mention of Jesus
taking bread and wine and speaking of them as his body and blood; instead it
recounts his humble act of washing the disciples' feet, the prophecy of the
betrayal, which set in motion the events that would lead to the cross, and his
long discourse in response to some questions posed by his followers, in which he
went on to speak of the importance of the unity of the disciples with him and
each other.[157][158]

The expression The Lord's Supper, derived from St. Paul's
usage in 1 Corinthians 11:17-34, may have originally referred to
the Agape
feast, the shared communal meal with which the Eucharist was originally
associated.[159]
The Agape feast is mentioned in Jude 12. But The Lord's Supper is now commonly used in
reference to a celebration involving no food other than the sacramental bread
and wine.

The Didache
(Greek: teaching) is an early Church order, including, among other features,
instructions for Baptism and the Eucharist. Most
scholars date it to the early 2nd century,[160]
and distinguish in it two separate Eucharistic traditions, the earlier tradition
in chapter 10 and the later one preceding it in chapter 9.[161]
The Eucharist is mentioned again in chapter 14.

Ignatius of Antioch, one of the Apostolic Fathers and a direct disciple of
the Apostle John, mentions the
Eucharist as "the flesh of our Saviour Jesus Christ",[162]
and Justin Martyr speaks of it as more than a meal: "the food over which the
prayer of thanksgiving, the word received from Christ, has been said ... is the
flesh and blood of this Jesus who became flesh ... and the deacons carry some to
those who are absent."[163]

Eucharistic theology

Main articles: Eucharistic
theology and Eucharistic
theologies contrasted

Many Christian denominations classify the Eucharist as a sacrament.[164]
Some Protestants prefer to call
it an ordinance,
viewing it not as a specific channel of divine grace but as an
expression of faith and of obedience to Christ.

Most Christians, even those who deny that there is any real change in the
elements used, recognize a special presence of Christ in this rite, though they
differ about exactly how, where, and when Christ is present.[165]
Roman Catholicism and
Eastern Orthodoxy
teach that the consecrated elements truly become the body and blood of Jesus
Christ. Transubstantiation is
the metaphysical explanation
given by Roman Catholics as to how this transformation occurs. Lutherans believe that the body
and blood of Jesus are present "in, with and under" the forms of bread and wine,
a concept known as the sacramental union. The
Reformed churches, following
the teachings of John Calvin, believe in a
spiritual (or "pneumatic") real presence of Christ by
the power of the Holy Spirit and received by
faith. Anglicans adhere to a range of
views although the Anglican church officially teaches the real presence.
Some Christians reject the concept of the real presence, believing that the
Eucharist is only a memorial of the death of
Christ.

The Baptism, Eucharist and Ministry document of the World Council of
Churches, attempting to present the common understanding of the Eucharist on
the part of the generality of Christians, describes it as "essentially the
sacrament of the gift which God makes to us in Christ through the power of the
Holy Spirit", "Thanksgiving to the Father", "Anamnesis or Memorial of Christ",
"the sacrament of the unique sacrifice of Christ, who ever lives to make
intercession for us", "the sacrament of the body and blood of Christ, the
sacrament of his real presence",
"Invocation of the Spirit", "Communion of the Faithful", and "Meal of the
Kingdom".

[edit]
Baptism

Main article: Baptism

Infant baptism

Believer's
baptism

[edit]
Eschatology: Last
Things

Detail from the Last
Judgement by Michelangelo

Christian
Eschatology

Eschatology
views

Viewpoints

•
Preterism

•
Idealism

•
Historicism

•
Futurism

The
Millennium

•
Amillennialism

•
Postmillennialism

•
Premillenialism

• Prewrath
Rapture

•
Posttribulation
Rapture

Biblical
Texts

• The Olivet
Discourse

• The
Sheep and the Goats

• The Book of
Revelation

• The Book
of Daniel

Seventy
Weeks

•
Apocrypha

Enoch

2
Esdras

Key
Terms

•
Abomination of Desolation

•
Armageddon

•
Four Horsemen

• New
Jerusalem

• Rapture

• Second
Coming

• Seven
Seals

•
Tribulation

• Two
Witnesses

•
Antichrist

•
in Historicism

• Son of
Perdition

• The
Beast

• in
Preterism

Israel
& the Church

• Covenant
Theology

•
Dispensationalism

•
Supersessionism

• New
Covenant Theology

• Olive Tree
Theology

• Dual
Covenant Theology

Christianity
portal

v · d · e

Main article: Christian
eschatology

See also: Christian
eschatological views

Eschatology is the study of the end of things, whether the end of an
individual life, the end of the age, or the end of the world. Broadly speaking,
it is the study of the destiny of man as it is revealed in the Bible, which is the primary source
for all Christian eschatology studies. The word eschatology (pronounced
"eskatology") is derived from two Greek words meaning "last" and "study"
(ἔσχατος, last; and λογία, lit. discourse).

Eschatology is concerned with the afterlife, beginning with death and the personal
judgment which follows the
death of the individual, and which is followed by the destination of heaven or hell. (In Catholic
theology, heaven is sometimes preceded by purgatory.) Eschatology also concerns
itself with events which are said to happen at the end of this age: the return of Jesus, the resurrection of the
dead, the Rapture, the Tribulation, and following
these things, the Millennium, or thousand years of peace, which has been
interpreted both literally and symbolically. Finally, eschatology concerns
itself with the end of the
world and its associated events: the Last Judgment; the
banishment of Death, Hades, and Satan and his followers to the Lake of Fire; and
the creation of a new heaven and earth. Millenarianists, Seventh Day
Adventists, Campbellites, Jehovah's
Witnesses, and other recently founded sects have been influential in the
modern development of these doctrines, though their roots are Biblical.

Eschatology is an ancient branch of study in Christian theology, with study
of the "last things" and the Second Coming of
Christ first touched on by Ignatius of Antioch
(c. 35-107 AD), then given more consideration by the Christian apologist in
Rome, Justin Martyr (c.
100-165). Treatment of eschatology continued in the West in the teachings of the
influential theologian of Roman North Africa, Tertullian (c. 160-225), and
was given fuller reflection and speculation soon after in the East by the master
theologian, Origen (c. 185-254).[166]

Martin Luther, John
Calvin, and other 16th-century reformers wrote long tracts about the End
Times, but interest in eschatology dwindled after the Reformation until the late
19th century, when it became popular in the Reformed, Pentecostal, and
Evangelical sects. It was increasingly recognized as a formal division of
theological study during the 20th century.

The second coming of Christ is the central event in Christian eschatology.
Most Christians believe that death and suffering will continue to exist until
Christ's return. Others believe that suffering will gradually be eliminated
prior to his coming, and that the elimination of injustice is our part in
preparing for that event. Needless to say, there are a variety of viewpoints
concerning the order and significance of eschatological events.

[edit]
Approaches to
prophetic interpretation

Eschatological passages, sometimes called "apocalyptic" writings, are found
throughout the Bible, in both the Old Testament (Hebrew scriptures) and the New
Testament, though as one might expect, they are concentrated in the prophetic
books. In the Christian Bible, the Prophets constitute the last of the
major divisions of the Old Testament, and include the books from Isaiah to
Malachi. In the New Testament, Revelation is the only book in this category,
though there are various short, but important, eschatological passages in the
gospels and the epistles, as will be seen in the following sections. There are
also many extrabiblical examples of eschatological prophecy, as well as church
traditions which have been added to the scriptures over the years.

The following approaches are applied by interpreters specifically to the book
of Revelation, but Revelation occupies such a central place in
Christian eschatology that it is worth mentioning them in this, more general,
overview. Parallel approaches can also be used in the interpretation of other
prophetic passages. These approaches are by no means mutually exclusive and are
usually combined to form a more complete and coherent interpretation.
Nevertheless, it is helpful to have a conceptual understanding of them.

The Preterist approach (from
the Latin praeteritus meaning gone by) seeks parallels between
Revelation and the events of the 1st century, such as Herod's attempt
to kill the infant Christ, the struggle of Christianity to survive the
persecutions of Judaism and the Roman Empire, the fall of Jerusalem in 70 AD,
the desecration of the temple in the same year, and the growth of Christianity
from a sect within Judaism to an independent religion.

The Historicist
method takes a broader historical approach and seeks parallels between
Revelation and the major people and events of history, especially those
which have had a direct effect on Israel and the Church.

The Futurist
method approaches Revelation as chiefly referring to events which as
yet have not come to pass, but which will take place at the end of this age
and at the end of the world. The main focus is the return of Christ. This is
the approach which most applies to eschatological studies.

The Idealist
model, also known as Spiritualist or Symbolic, approaches the
images of Revelation as symbols which represent larger themes and
concepts, rather than actual people and events. It sees in Revelation an
allegorical representation of the ongoing struggle of the forces of light and
darkness, and the ultimate triumph of good over evil.

But even if we accept the premises of eschatology, careful study is still
necessary, for as John Walvoord says, “One of the problems in the interpretation
of prophecy is that every prophecy is related to other prophecies like pieces of
a tapestry to the whole.”[167]
In the light of this, and of the fact that eschatology deals with events which
are as yet unseen, it behooves us to keep an open mind. Dogmatism has no place
here, and we must be open to the constant refinement of our understanding, in
the knowledge that the truth in its fullness will not be known until these
events come to pass.

[edit]
See also

Eastern
Orthodox theology

Apophatic
theology · Cataphatic
theology · Economy · Essence–Energies · Filioque · Gnomic will · Metousiosis · Phronema · Phyletism · Proskynesis · Sobornost · Symphonia · Tabor
light · Theoria · Theosis · Theotokos

Roman Catholic
theology

Absolution · Apostolic
succession · Assumption of
Mary · Traditionalism · Ecumenical
Councils · Icon veneration · Immaculate
conception · Indulgences · Infant
baptism · Josephology · Liturgy · Mariology · Mass · Modernism · Natural Law · Papal
infallibility · Priesthood · Purgatory · Quartodecimanism · Real
presence · Sacerdotalism · Sacrament · Sainthood · Thomism · Transubstantiation · Ultramontanism

Protestant
theology

Widely
held protestant theology

Adiaphora · Assurance · Believer's
baptism · Priesthood
of the believer

Theology of other protestant traditions: Faith
healing · Glossolalia

Anglican

Anglo-Catholicism · Evangelical
Catholic · High
church · Latitudinarian · Low church

Arminian / Wesleyan

Christian
perfection · Conditional
preservation of the saints · Imparted
righteousness · Lordship
salvation · Prevenient
grace

Lutheran

Two
kingdoms · Loci
Theologici · Theology of the
Cross

Confessional
Lutheran · Haugean · Lutheran
Orthodoxy · Lutheran
scholasticism · Neo-Lutheranism

Reformed

Free Grace
theology · Monergism · Predestination · Five solas (Sola
fide · Sola
gratia · Sola
scriptura · Soli Deo
gloria · Solus
Christus) · Supersessionism · Total
depravity · TULIP

Other Traditions

Adventistism · Anabaptism · Dispensationalism · Evangelicalism · Fundamentalism · Messianic
Judaism · Pentecostalism · Pietism · Restorationism

Christianity
portal

Bible
portal

Catholic–Orthodox
theological differences

The
nature of God in Western theology

Heresy

Theology

Biblical law
in Christianity

[edit]
References

^
See, e.g., Daniel L. Migliore, Faith Seeking Understanding: An Introduction
to Christian Theology (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2004)

^
See, e.g., David Burrell, Freedom and Creation in Three Traditions
(Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 1994)

^
See, e.g., John Shelby Spong, Why Christianity Must Change or Die (New
York: Harper Collins, 2001)

^
See, e.g., Duncan Dormor et al. (eds), Anglicanism, the Answer to
Modernity (London: Continuum, 2003)

^
For example, see Timothy Gorringe, Crime, Changing Society and the
Churches Series (London:SPCK, 2004)

^ a
b
Geisler & Nix (1986). A General
Introduction to the Bible. Moody Press, Chicago. ISBN 0-8024-2916-5.

^
Coleman (1975). "Biblical Inerrancy: Are We
Going Anywhere?". Theology Today Volume 31, No. 4.

^
Catechism of the Catholic Church, Inspiration and Truth of Sacred Scripture (§105-108);
Second Helvetic Confession, Of the
Holy Scripture Being the True Word of God[dead
link]; Chicago Statement on Biblical Inerrancy, Online text

^ Catholic Encyclopedia: Canon of the New Testament: "The idea
of a complete and clear-cut canon of the New Testament existing from the
beginning, that is from Apostolic times, has no foundation in history."

^ a
b
c
Stagg, Frank. New Testament Theology. Broadman Press, 1962. ISBN
978-0805416138, p. 38 ff.

^
Herman Bavinck, The
Doctrine of God. Edinburgh: The Banner of Truth Trust, 1979.

^
Donald Macleod, Behold Your God (Christian Focus Publications, 1995),
20-21.

^
The Westminster
Shorter Catechism's definition of God is merely an enumeration of his
attributes: "God is a Spirit, infinite, eternal, and unchangeable in his
being, wisdom, power, holiness, justice, goodness, and truth."Westminster
Shorter Catechism, Question and Answer 4. The Westminster
Larger Catechism adds certain attributes to this description, such as
"all-sufficient," "incomprehensible," "every where present" and "knowing all
things". Westminster
Larger Catechism, Question and Answer 7. This answer has been criticised,
however, as having "nothing specifically Christian about it."James B. Jordan, "What is God?," Biblical Horizons Newsletter, No. 82.

^
D. A.
Carson, The Gagging of God (Grand Rapids: Zondervan), 1996.

^
R. C.
Sproul, The Holiness of God (Scripture Press Foundation, 1986), 38.

^
D. A.
Carson, The Difficult Doctrine of the Love of God. Leicester:
Inter-Varsity Press, 2000.

^
David
J. Bosch, Transforming Mission (Maryknoll: Orbis Books, 1991), 390.

^
Providence in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World
Religions.

^
Machen, J. Gresham. God Transcendent. Banner of Truth publishers, 1998.
ISBN
0851513557

^ a
b
Critical Terms for Religious Studies. Chicago: The University of
Chicago Press, 1998. Credo Reference. 27 July 2009

^ a
b
c
d
Encyclopædia Britannica. "Encyclopaedia Britannica, s.v. Eucharist".
Britannica.com. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9033174/Eucharist. Retrieved 2010-08-08.

^
See discussion in  "Person".
Catholic
Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. 1913.

^
Grudem, Wayne A. 1994. Systematic Theology: An Introduction to Biblical
Doctrine. Leicester, England: Inter-Varsity Press; Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan.
Page 226.

^ a
b
Olson, Roger E. The Story of Christian Theology: Twenty Centuries of
Tradition & Reform. Downers Grove: InterVarsity Press, 1999. ISBN
9780830815050.

^
"Tertullian, Against Praxeas, chapter II". Ccel.org.
2005-06-01. http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf03.v.ix.ii.html. Retrieved 2010-08-08.

^ a
b
c
d
e
f
g
h
i
j
k
The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (Oxford University Press, 2005
ISBN
978-0-19-280290-3), article Trinity, doctrine of the

^
J.N.D. Kelly, Early Christian Doctrines pp. 87-90; T. Desmond
Alexander, New Dictionary of Biblical Theology pp. 514-515; Alister E.
McGrath, Historical Theology p. 61.

^
Vickers, Jason E. Invocation and Assent: The Making and the Remaking of
Trinitarian Theology. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2008. ISBN
0802862691

^
Diana L. Eck (2003) Encountering God: A Spiritual Journey from Bozeman to
Banaras. p. 98

^
"God sent forth His Son... that we might receive the adoption as sons. And
because you are sons, God has sent forth the Spirit of His Son into your
hearts crying out, "Abba, Father!" Therefore you are no longer a slave but a
son, and if a son, then an heir of God through Christ..[Galatians 4:4-7]

^
Grudem, Wayne A. Systematic Theology: An Introduction to Biblical
Doctrine. Zondervan, 1994. ISBN
0310286700

^
Matthew 1:18-25, Luke 1:35, Luke 3:23

^
"Etymology
Online: Christ". Etymonline.com. http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=Christ. Retrieved 2010-08-08.

^
Compare.Galatians 4:4;Jn 1:1-14; 5:18-25; Jn

^
"A brief account of the early Church councils and the Church fathers shows
that they adopted the doctrine of the eternal subordination of the Son, and
that this doctrine continues in the Church as orthodoxy to this day." Stephen
D. Kovach and Peter R. Schemm Jr., "A Defense of the Doctrine of the Eternal
Subordination of the Son", Journal
of the Evangelical Theological Society 42 (1999): 461–476.

^
Mark 1:10

^
Bruce Milne. Know the Truth. Inter-Varsity
Press. pp. 181–182.

^
McKim, Donald K. 1996. Westminster dictionary of theological terms.
Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press. p140.

^
"Jacques Maritain Center: GC 4.54". .nd.edu. http://www2.nd.edu/Departments/Maritain/etext/gc4_54.htm. Retrieved 2010-08-08.

^
"Advent
Prayer and the Incarnation". Ewtn.com. http://www.ewtn.com/library/Liturgy/zlitur109.htm. Retrieved 2010-08-08.

^ *
The Seven
Ecumenical Councils, from the Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, vols.
2-14 (CCEL.org) Contains detailed statements from each of these councils. The
First Council of Nicaea, Council of Ephesus and Council of Chalcedon are the
"First," "Third" and "Fourth" Ecumenical Councils, respectively.

^
Martin Lembke, lecture in the course "Meetings with the World's Religions",
Centre for Theology and Religious Studies, Lund University, Spring Term 2010.

^
Gregory of Nyssa, Antirrheticus adversus Apollinarem.

^
"Theodore" in The Westminster Dictionary of Christian History, ed. J.
Brauer. Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1971.

^
Denzinger, ed. Bannwart, 148

^
[1][dead
link]

^ a
b
MacLeod 1998, p. 220

^
NRSV; Matthew 4.1-11.

^ a
b
Macleod 1998, p. 226

^ a
b
Macleod 1998, p. 227

^
Barclay 1967, p. 81

^
Barth 1956, p. 207

^
MacLeod 1998, p. 37-41

^
Kesich, Veselin (2007). Formation and struggles : the church, A.D.
33-450. Crestwood, N.Y.: St. Vladimir's Seminary Press. p. 159.
ISBN 0881413194. http://books.google.com/?id=vc0wBCU70NwC&pg=RA1-PA154&dq=Justin+Martyr+christology

^
"Athenagoras of Athens: A Plea for the Christians".
Earlychristianwritings.com. 2006-02-02. http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/text/athenagoras-plea.html. Retrieved 2010-08-08.

^
Greene 2003, p. 30

^
Greene 2003, p. 31-43, 324

^
Greene 2003, p. 43-51

^
Greene 2003, p. 51-71, 325

^
Fuller
1965, p. 15

^
John Calvin, Calvins Calvinism BOOK II Chapter 15 Centers for Reformed
Theology and Apologetics [resource online] (1996-2002, accessed 3 June
2006);available from http://www.reformed.org/books/institutes/books/book2/bk2ch15.html#one.htm

^
H. Orton Wiley, Christian Theology Chapter 22 [resource online] (Nampa, Idaho:
1993-2005, accessed 3 June 2006); available from http://wesley.nnu.edu/holiness_tradition/wiley/wiley-2-22.htm

^
Millard J. Erickson (1992). Introducing
Christian Doctrine.. Baker Book House. p. 103.

^ a
b
T C Hammond; Revised and edited by David F Wright
(1968). In Understanding be Men:A Handbook of Christian Doctrine.
(sixth ed.). Inter-Varsity
Press. pp. 54–56 and 128–131.

^ a
b
"Catholic
Encyclopedia:Holy Spirit". http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07409a.htm.

^
Mark 3:28-30

^
Matthew 12:30-32

^
Luke 12:8-10

^
Spurgeon, Charles H. "The Comforter", 1855. Online: http://www.spurgeon.org/sermons/0005.htm Accessed 29 April
2009

^
The Holy Spirit and His Gifts. J. Oswald Sanders.
Inter-Varsity Press. chapter 5.

^ a
b
c
d
e
Millard J. Erickson (1992). Introducing
Christian Doctrine.. Baker Book House. pp. 265–270.

^
Though the term "born again"
is most frequently used by evangelical Christians, most denominations do
consider that the new Christian is a "new creation" and "born again". See for
example the Catholic Encyclopedia [2]

^
T C Hammond; Revised and edited by David F Wright
(1968). In Understanding be Men:A Handbook of Christian Doctrine.
(sixth ed.). Inter-Varsity
Press. p. 134.

^
Millard J. Erickson (1992). Introducing
Christian Doctrine.. Baker Book House. pp. 267–268.

^
Karl Barth (1949).
Dogmatics in Outline. New York Philosophical Library.
p. 95.

^
Stephen F. Winward (1981). Fruit of the
Spirit. Inter-Varsity
Press.

^
Catechism of the Catholic Church, Section 1832.

^
De Sacramentis 3.8.

^ a
b
c
Millard J. Erickson (1992). Introducing
Christian Doctrine.. Baker Book House. pp. 265–275.

^
Communion and Stewardship: Human Persons Created in the Image of
God,(July 23rd 2004), International Theological Commission, La Civiltà
Cattolica 2004, IV, 254-286

^
"CCC Search
Result - Paragraph # 291". Scborromeo.org. http://www.scborromeo.org/ccc/para/291.htm. Retrieved 2010-08-08.

^
Millard Erickson,
Christian Theology 2nd edn, 537

^
Hebrew-English Lexicon, Brown, Driver & Briggs, Hendrickson
Publishers.

^
Baker's Evangelical Dictionary of Biblical Theology.

^
Dictionary of Biblical Theology, Father Xavier Leon Dufour, 1985.

^
New International Dictionary.

^
New Dictionary of Biblical Theology

^
“A careful examination of the βiblical material, particularly the words
nefesh, neshama, and ruaḥ, which are often too broadly translated as “soul”
and “spirit,” indicates that these must not be understood as referring to the
psychical side of a psychophysical pair. A man did not possess a nefesh but
rather was a nefesh, as Gen. 2:7 says: “wayehi ha-adam le-nefesh ḥayya” (“. .
. and the man became a living being”). Man was, for most of the biblical
writers, what has been called “a unit of vital power,” not a dual creature
separable into two distinct parts of unequal importance and value. While this
understanding of the nature of man dominated biblical thought, in apocalyptic
literature (2nd century BCE–2nd century CE) the term nefesh began to be viewed
as a separable psychical entity with existence apart from body.… The biblical
view of man as an inseparable psychosomatic unit meant that death was
understood to be his dissolution.”—Britannica, 2004.

^
Exegetical Dictionary of the New Testament

^
The early Hebrews apparently had a concept of the soul but did not separate it
from the body, although later Jewish writers developed the idea of the soul
further. Old Testament references to the soul are related to the concept of
breath and establish no distinction between the ethereal soul and the
corporeal body. Christian concepts of a body-soul dichotomy originated with
the ancient Greeks andwere introduced into Christian theology at an early date
by St. Gregory of Nyssa and by St. Augustine.—Britannica, 2004

^
Bultmann, I:206

^
D. K. Innes, "Sheol" in New Bible Dictionary, IVP 1996.

^
Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible, by David Noel Freedman, Allen
C. Myers, Astrid B. Beck; contributors: David Noel Freedman, Allen C. Myers,
Astrid B. Beck (Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2000 ISBN 9780802824004), s.v.
Cherubim

^
Davidson, Gustav (1994) [1967]. A Dictionary of
Fallen Angels, Including the Fallen Angels. New York, NY: Macmillan, Inc..
ISBN 9780029070529.

^
"ScriptureText.com". ScriptureText.com.
http://scripturetext.com/2_peter/1-19.htm. Retrieved 2010-08-08.

^
"Etymonline.com". Etymonline.com. http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=phosphorous. Retrieved 2010-08-08.

^
"Online-Literature.com". Online-Literature.com. http://www.online-literature.com/view.php/paradiselost/7?term=lucifer. Retrieved 2010-08-08.

^
"What do you
think?". AllAboutJesusChrist.org. http://www.allaboutjesuschrist.org/. Retrieved 2008-10-05.

^
Book for Commemoration of the Living and the Dead, trans. Father
Lawrence (Holy Trinity Monastery, Jordanville NY), p. 77.

^
Treated extensively in C. S. Lewis, The
Discarded Image: An Introduction to Medieval and Renaissance Literature
(1964).

^
See discussion at http://forums.catholic.com/showthread.php?p=3322510, where
a.o. Hebrews 12:22-24 is quoted.

^
For example, see http://www.zenit.org/english/visualizza.phtml?sid=64735 and
http://www.cwnews.com/news/viewstory.cfm?recnum=40979.

^
"Biblical Reference: John 3:18". Ibs.org. http://www.ibs.org/bible/verse/?q=John3:18&niv=yes. Retrieved 2010-08-08. [dead
link]

^
"hell -
Definitions from Dictionary.com". Dictionary.reference.com. http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/hell. Retrieved 2010-08-08.

^ a
b
c
d
e
"Hell." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New
York: Oxford University Press. 2005

^
New Bible Dictionary third edition, IVP 1996. Articles on "Hell",
"Sheol".

^ a
b
c
Evangelical Alliance Commission on Unity and Truth
among Evangelicals (2000). The Nature of Hell. Acute, Paternoster
(London).

^
C. S. Lewis, The Great Divorce, 1946

^
Lee Strobel, The Case for Faith, 2000

^
Millard Erickson
(2001). Introducing Christian Doctrine, 2nd ed. Baker
Academic.

^
The Nature of Hell. Conclusions and Recommendations.
Evangelical
Alliance. 2000. http://www.eauk.org/theology/acute/loader.cfm?csModule=security/getfile&pageid=9164

^
New Dictionary of Biblical Theology; IVP Leicester 2000, "Hell"

^
Encyclopedia Britannica: Theodicy

^
The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, "The Problem of
Evil", Michael Tooley

^ a
b
c
The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, "The Evidential
Problem of Evil", Nick Trakakis

^
Honderich, Ted (2005).
"theodicy". The Oxford Companion to Philosophy. ISBN 0199264791.
"John
Hick, for example, proposes a theodicy, while Alvin Plantinga
formulates a defense. The idea of human free will often appears in a both of
these strategies, but in different ways.".

^
Swinburne, Richard
(2005). "evil, the problem of". In Ted Honderich. The
Oxford Companion to Philosophy. ISBN 0199264791.

^
Lewis, C. S., The Problem of Pain HarperCollins:New York, 1996 p.24-25

^
Rhodes, Ron, Notes on the Problem of Evil

^
William A. Dembski, The End of Christianity: Finding a Good God in an Evil
World. (Nashville: Broadman and Holman, 2009

^
Ehrman, Bart D., God's Problem: How the Bible Fails to Answer Our Most
Important Question--Why We Suffer. HarperOne, 2008

^
Bavink, Herman. Reformed Dogmatics Vol. 3. (Grand Rapids: Baker
Academic, 2004) Pages 75-125 detail the historical development of
Hamartiology, including Pelagius's position and the mediating positions)

^
Paul's Epistle to the Romans, chapter 3 verse 23

^
The term "ancestral sin" is also
used, as in Greek προπατορικὴ
ἁμαρτία (e.g. Πόλεμος και
φτώχεια - η ορθόδοξη άποψη, Η νηστεία της
Σαρακοστής, Πώς στράφηκε ο Λούθηρος κατά του Μοναχισμού - του Γεωργίου
Φλωρόφσκυ) or προπατορικὸ ἁμάρτημα (e.g. Απαντήσεις σε ερωτήματα δογματικά - Ανδρέα Θεοδώρου, εκδ.
Αποστολικής Διακονίας, 1997, σελ. 156-161, Θεοτόκος και προπατορικό αμάρτημα)

^
Brodd, Jefferey (2003). World Religions.
Winona, MN: Saint Mary's Press. ISBN 978-0-88489-725-5.

^
Augustine wrote to Julian of Eclanum:
Sed si disputatione subtilissima et elimatissima opus est, ut sciamus utrum
primos homines insipientia superbos, an insipientes superbia fecerit.
(Contra Julianum, V, 4.18; PL 44, 795)

^
Nisi radicem mali humanus tunc reciperet sensus („Contra Julianum”, I,
9.42; PL 44, 670)

^
Libido quae transmittit peccatum originale in prolem, non est libido
actualis, quia dato quod virtute divina concederetur alicui quod nullam
inordinatam libidinem in actu generationis sentiret, adhuc transmitteret in
prolem originale peccatum. Sed libido illa est intelligenda habitualiter,
secundum quod appetitus sensitivus non continetur sub ratione vinculo
originalis iustitiae. Et talis libido in omnibus est aequalis (STh Iª-IIae
q. 82 a. 4 ad 3).

^
Non substantialiter manere concupiscentiam, sicut corpus aliquod aut
spiritum; sed esse affectionem quamdam malae qualitatis, sicut est
languor. (De nuptiis et concupiscentia, I, 25. 28; PL 44, 430; cf.
Contra Julianum, VI, 18.53; PL 44, 854; ibid. VI, 19.58; PL 44, 857;
ibid., II, 10.33; PL 44, 697; Contra Secundinum Manichaeum, 15; PL 42,
590.

^
Augustine wrote to Julian of Eclanum:
Quis enim negat futurum fuisse concubitum, etiamsi peccatum non
praecessisset? Sed futurus fuerat, sicut aliis membris, ita etiam genitalibus
voluntate motis, non libidine concitatis; aut certe etiam ipsa libidine – ut
non vos de illa nimium contristemus – non qualis nunc est, sed ad nutum
voluntarium serviente (Contra Julianum, IV. 11. 57; PL 44, 766). See also
his late work: Contra secundam Iuliani responsionem imperfectum opus,
II, 42; PL 45,1160; ibid. II, 45; PL 45,1161; ibid., VI, 22; PL 45, 1550-1551.
Cf.Schmitt, É. (1983). Le mariage chrétien dans
l'oeuvre de Saint Augustin. Une théologie baptismale de la vie conjugale.
Études Augustiniennes. Paris. p. 104.

^
Justo L. Gonzalez (1970-1975). A History of
Christian Thought: Volume 2 (From Augustine to the eve of the
Reformation). Abingdon Press.

^
""Jansenius and
Jansenism" in The Catholic Encyclopedia". Newadvent.org.
1910-10-01. http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08285a.htm. Retrieved 2010-08-08.

^
Therefore, just as sin came into the world through one man, and death
through sin, and so death spread to all men because all sinned—for sin
indeed was in the world before the law was given, but sin is not counted where
there is no law. Yet death reigned from Adam to Moses, even over those whose
sinning was not like the transgression of Adam, who was a type of the one who
was to come. —Romans 5:12-14,
ESV
"Therefore, as one trespass led to condemnation for all men, so one act of
righteousness leads to justification and life for all men. For as by the
one man's disobedience the many were made sinners, so by the one man's
obedience the many will be made righteous. Now the law came in to increase
the trespass, but where sin increased, grace abounded all the more, so that,
as sin reigned in death, grace also might reign through righteousness leading
to eternal life through Jesus Christ our Lord." —Rom. 5:18-21, ESV

^
The Book of Concord,
"The Thorough Declaration of the Formula of Concord," chapter II, sections 11 and 12; The Augsburg
Confession, Article
2

^
Arminius, James The Writings of James Arminius (three vols.), tr. James
Nichols and W.R. Bagnall (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1956), I:252

^
Canons of
Dordrecht, "The Third and Fourth Main Points of Doctrine"; Westminster
Confession of Faith, chapter 6; Westminster
Larger Catechism, Question 25; Heidelberg
Catechism, question
8

^
The Westminster
Confession of Faith, 9.3

^
Ra McLaughlin. "Total Depravity, part 1". Reformed Perspectives. http://thirdmill.org/newfiles/ra_mclaughlin/TH.McLaughlin.Total_Depravity.1.html. Retrieved 2008-07-14. "[Any person] can do
outwardly good works, but these works come from a heart that hates God, and
therefore fail to meet God’s righteous standards.".

^ a
b
Table drawn from, though not copied, from Lange, Lyle W. God So Loved the
Word: A Study of Christian Doctrine. Milwaukee: Northwestern Publishing
House, 2006. p. 448.

^
Soteriology. Dictionary.com. WordNet 3.0. Princeton University. http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/Soteriology (accessed:
March 02, 2008).

^
"soteriology - Definition from the Merriam-Webster Online
Dictionary". Merriam-webster.com. 2007-04-25. http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/soteriology. Retrieved 2010-08-08.

^
"Bishop -
Definition and More from the Free Merriam-Webster Dictionary".
Merriam-webster.com. 2007-04-25. http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bishop. Retrieved 2010-08-08.

^
Hexam's Concise Dictionary of Religion "Sacrament" obtained at http://www.ucalgary.ca/~nurelweb/concise/WORDS-S.html

^
Catholic Encyclopaedia: "Sacraments" http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/13295a.htm

^
See Augsburg Confession, Article 7, Of the Church

^
The Sacraments http://www.oca.org/QA.asp?ID=122&SID=3

^
Ignazio Silone, Bread and Wine (1937).

^
cf. The American
Heritage Dictionary of the English Language: Fourth Edition 2000[dead
link]

^
"Parallel
Translations". Bible.cc. http://bible.cc/1_corinthians/10-16.htm. Retrieved 2010-08-08.

^
1 Corinthians 10:16

^
Tyndale Bible Dictionary / editors, Philip W. Comfort, Walter A. Elwell, 2001
ISBN
0-8423-7089-7, article: Lord's Supper, The

^
Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church / editors, F. L. Cross & E. A.
Livingstone 2005 ISBN
978-0-19-280290-3, article Eucharist

^
(1 Corinthians 11:23-25

^
And as they were eating, he took bread, and blessed (εὐλογήσας - eulogēsas),
and broke it, and gave it to them, and said, "Take; this is my body." And he
took a cup, and when he had given thanks (εὐχαριστήσας - eucharistēsas) he
gave it to them, and they all drank of it. And he said to them, "This is my
blood of the covenant, which is poured out for many. Truly, I say to you, I
shall not drink again of the fruit of the vine until that day when I drink it
new in the kingdom of God." Mark 14:22-25

^
Now as they were eating, Jesus took bread, and blessed (εὐλογήσας -
eulogēsas), and broke it, and gave it to the disciples and said, "Take, eat;
this is my body." And he took a cup, and when he had given thanks
(εὐχαριστήσας – eucharistēsas) he gave it to them, saying, "Drink of it, all
of you; for this is my blood of the covenant, which is poured out for many for
the forgiveness of sins. I tell you I shall not drink again of this fruit of
the vine until that day when I drink it new with you in my Father's kingdom."
Matthew 26:26-29

^
They prepared the passover. And when the hour came, he sat at table, and the
apostles with him. And he said to them, "I have earnestly desired to eat this
passover with you before I suffer; for I tell you I shall not eat it until it
is fulfilled in the kingdom of God." And he took a cup, and when he had given
thanks (εὐχαριστήσας – eucharistēsas) he said, "Take this, and divide it among
yourselves; for I tell you that from now on I shall not drink of the fruit of
the vine until the kingdom of God comes." And he took bread, and when he had
given thanks (εὐχαριστήσας – eucharistēsas) he broke it and gave it to them,
saying, "This is my body which is given for you. Do this in remembrance of
me." And likewise the cup after supper, saying, "This cup which is poured out
for you is the new covenant in my blood. ..." Luke 22:13-20

^ a
b
Harris, Stephen L.,
Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985.

^
Tyndale Bible Dictionary / editors, Philip W. Comfort, Walter A. Elwell, 2001
ISBN
0-8423-7089-7, article: "John, Gospel of

^
Lambert, J. C. (1978 reprint). The
International Standard Bible Encyclopedia. Wm. B.
Eerdmans Publishing Co.. ISBN 0-8028-8045-2.

^
Bruce Metzger. The canon
of the New Testament. 1997

^
"There are now two quite separate Eucharistic celebrations given in Didache
9-10, with the earlier one now put in second place." Crossan. The historical
Jesus. Citing Riggs, John W. 1984

^
" ... (t)he eucharist is the flesh of our Saviour Jesus Christ, which flesh
suffered for our sins, and which in His loving-kindness the Father raised up.
... Let that eucharist alone be considered valid which is under the bishop or
him to whom he commits it. ... It is not lawful apart from the bishop either
to baptize, or to hold a love-feast. But whatsoever he approves, that also is
well-pleasing to God, that everything which you do may be secure and valid."
Letter to the Smyrnaeans, 6, 8 "Give heed to keep one
Eucharist. For there is one flesh of our Lord Jesus Christ, and one cup unto
union with His blood. There is one altar, as there is one bishop, together
with the presbytery and deacons, my fellow-servants; that whatsoever you do,
you may do according unto God."Letter to the Philadelphians, 4

^
First Apology, 65-67

^
For example, Roman Catholics, Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox,
Anglo-Catholics, Old Catholics; and cf. the presentation of the Eucharist as a
sacrament in the Baptism, Eucharist and Ministry document of the World Council of
Churches

^
"Most Christian traditions also teach that Jesus is present in the Eucharist
in some special way, though they disagree about the mode, the locus, and the
time of that presence" (Encyclopaedia Britannica Online).

^
Alexander Roberts & James Donaldson, eds. Ante-Nicene Fathers. (16
vol.) Peabody, Massachusetts: Hendrickson, 1994. The writings of Ignatius and
Justin Martyr can be found in Vol. 1; Tertullian, in Volumes 3-4; and Origen,
in Volume 4.

^
John F. Walvoord. The Prophecy Knowledge Handbook. Wheaton, Illinois:
Victor, 1990. p7.

[edit]
Bibliography

Christian Theology Reader by Alister McGrath. ISBN
0–631–20637-X

Christian Theology: An Introduction by Alister McGrath. ISBN
0–631–22528–5

Hill, Jonathan 2003) The History of Christian Thought. ISBN
0–7459–5093–0 and 0830827765

Volume 1: The Living God (1992). ISBN 0–06–066363–4

Volume 2: The Word of Life (1992). ISBN 0–06–066364–2

Volume 3: Life in the Spirit (1994). ISBN 0–06–066362–6

Berkhof, Louis. The History of Christian Doctrine. Carlisle: Banner
of Truth, 1996. ISBN
0-85151-005-1

See the Christian Theology Reading Room (Tyndale Seminary) for an
extensive collection of online resources for Christian Theology.

Christian
Classics Ethereal Library

Jonathan Hayward, contemporary Orthodox theologian

Orthodox Church Fathers: Christian Theology Classics Search
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